Organisms for the production of 1,3-butanediol

ABSTRACT

A non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes a microbial organism having a 1,3-butanediol (1,3-BDO) pathway having at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 1,3-BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 1,3-BDO. The pathway includes an enzyme selected from a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase, an AKP dehydrogenase, a 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate aminotransferase, a 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate oxidoreductase (deaminating), a 2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate decarboxylase, a 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase, an AKP aminotransferase, an AKP oxidoreductase (deaminating), a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase, a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing), a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing), a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase, an AKP decarboxylase, a 4-aminobutan-2-one aminotransferase, a 4-aminobutan-2-one oxidoreductase (deaminating), a 4-aminobutan-2-one ammonia-lyase, a butenone hydratase, an AKP ammonia-lyase, an acetylacrylate decarboxylase, an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming), an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, alcohol forming), an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketone reducing), a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, and a crotonase. A method for producing 1,3-BDO, includes culturing such microbial organisms under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 1,3-BDO.

STATEMENT OF RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. Non-provisional applicationSer. No. 14/673,600, filed Mar. 30, 2015, which is a continuation ofU.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 12/772,114, filed Apr. 30,2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,017,983, which claims the benefit of priorityof U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/174,473, filed Apr. 30, 2009, theentire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to biosynthetic processes andorganisms capable of producing organic compounds. More specifically, theinvention relates to non-naturally occurring organisms that can producethe commodity chemical 1,3-butanediol.

1,3-butanediol (1,3-BDO) is a four carbon diol traditionally producedfrom acetylene via its hydration. The resulting acetaldehyde is thenconverted to 3-hydroxybutyraldehdye which is subsequently reduced toform 1,3-BDO. In more recent years, acetylene has been replaced by theless expensive ethylene as a source of acetaldehyde. 1,3-BDO is commonlyused as an organic solvent for food flavoring agents. It is also used asa co-monomer for polyurethane and polyester resins and is widelyemployed as a hypoglycaemic agent. Optically active 1,3-BDO is a usefulstarting material for the synthesis of biologically active compounds andliquid crystals. A substantial commercial use of 1,3-butanediol issubsequent dehydration to afford 1,3-butadiene (Ichikawa et al., J. ofMolecular Catalysis A—Chemical, 256:106-112 (2006); Ichikawa et al., J.of Molecular Catalysis A—Chemical, 231:181-189 (2005)), a 25 billionlb/yr petrochemical used to manufacture synthetic rubbers (e.g., tires),latex, and resins. The reliance on petroleum based feedstocks for eitheracetylene or ethylene warrants the development of a renewable feedstockbased route to 1,3-butanediol and to butadiene.

Thus, there exists a need to develop microorganisms and methods of theiruse to produce 1,3-BDO. The present invention satisfies this need andprovides related advantages as well.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In some embodiments, the present invention is directed to anon-naturally occurring microbial organism that includes a microbialorganism having a 1,3-butanediol (1,3-BDO) pathway having at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding a 1,3-BDO pathway enzyme expressed in asufficient amount to produce 1,3-BDO. The 1,3-BDO pathway includes anenzyme selected from the group consisting of a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase, an AKP dehydrogenase, a 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoateaminotransferase, a 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate oxidoreductase(deaminating), a 2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate decarboxylase, a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase, an AKP aminotransferase, an AKPoxidoreductase (deaminating), a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase, a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing), a 3-oxobutyraldehydereductase (aldehyde reducing), a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase, an AKPdecarboxylase, a 4-aminobutan-2-one aminotransferase, a4-aminobutan-2-one oxidoreductase (deaminating), a 4-aminobutan-2-oneammonia-lyase, a butenone hydratase, an AKP ammonia-lyase, anacetylacrylate decarboxylase, an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase(CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming), an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase(CoA-dependent, alcohol forming), an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketonereducing), a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), a3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoAdehydratase, and a crotonase.

In some embodiments, the present invention is directed to a method forproducing 1,3-BDO that includes culturing such a non-naturally occurringmicrobial organism, under conditions and for a sufficient period of timeto produce 1,3-BDO.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows pathways to 1,3-BDO from alanine. Enzymes are: A) AKPthiolase, B) AKP aminotransferase or AKP oxidoreductase (deaminating),C) 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase, D) 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase(aldehyde reducing), E) AKP decarboxylase, F) 4-aminobutan-2-oneammonia-lyase, G) Butenone hydratase, H) 4-hydroxy,2-butanone reductase,I) AKP ammonia-lyase, J) acetylacrylate decarboxylase, K)4-aminobutan-2-one aminotransferase or 4-aminobutan-2-one oxidoreductase(deaminating), L) AKP dehydrogenase, M) 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoateaminotransferase or 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate oxidoreductase(deaminating), N) 2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate decarboxylase, O)3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing), and P)3-hydroxybutyraldehdye reductase.

FIG. 2 shows pathways from acetoacetyl-CoA to 1,3-butanediol. Enzymesare: A) acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming), B)3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing), C)3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase, D) acetoacetyl-CoA reductase(CoA-dependent, alcohol forming), E) 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase(aldehyde reducing), F) 4-hydroxy,2-butanone reductase, G)acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketone reducing), H) 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoAreductase (aldehyde forming), and I) 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase(alcohol forming).

FIG. 3 shows pathways from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 1,3-butanediol.Enzymes are: A) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, B) crotonase, C)3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), D)3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase, and E) 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase(alcohol forming).

FIG. 4 shows aldehyde dehydrogenases showing significant activity on3-hydroxybutyl-CoA.

FIG. 5 shows the specific activity of bld from Clostridiumsaccharoperbutylacetonicum on 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA before and afterdialysis.

FIG. 6 shows 1,3-BDO concentrations when 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde wasadded as a substrate and in the control samples with no substrate. TheGI numbers for the alcohol dehydrogenases are shown.

FIG. 7 shows 1,3-BDO concentrations when 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA was addedas a substrate and in the control samples with no substrate. The GInumbers for the alcohol dehydrogenases are shown. The GI number for thealdehyde dehydrogenase tested in conjunction is 163762382.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

This invention is directed, in part, to non-naturally occurringmicroorganisms that express genes encoding enzymes that catalyze1,3-butanediol (1,3-BDO) production. Pathways for the production of1,3-butanediol disclosed herein are based on three precursors: (i)D-alanine, (ii) acetoacetyl-CoA, and (iii) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA.Successfully engineering these pathways entails identifying anappropriate set of enzymes with sufficient activity and specificity,cloning their corresponding genes into a production host, optimizingfermentation conditions, and assaying for product formation followingfermentation.

The conversion of alanine to 1,3-BDO can be accomplished by a number ofpathways in about five enzymatic steps as shown in FIG. 1. In the firststep of all pathways (Step A), alanine and acetyl-CoA are combined by2-amino-4-ketopentanoate thiolase, a highly selective enzyme. Theproduct of this reaction, 2-amino-4-oxopentanoate (AKP) can then betransaminated, reduced, decarboxylated or deaminated as shown in FIG. 1.Further synthetic steps for the production of 1,3-BDO are discussed indetail below. The theoretical yield of 1,3-BDO from each of thesepathways is calculated to be about 1.09 mole/mole of glucose consumed.

FIG. 2 outlines multiple routes for producing 1,3-BDO fromacetoacetyl-CoA. Each of these pathways from acetoacetyl-CoA to 1,3-BDOutilizes three reducing equivalents and provides a theoretical yield of1 mole of 1,3-BDO per mole of glucose consumed. Other carbon substratessuch as syngas can also be used for the production of acetoacetyl-CoA.Gasification of glucose to form syngas will result in the maximumtheoretical yield of 1.09 moles of 1,3-BDO per mole of glucose consumed,assuming that 6 moles of CO and 6 moles of H₂ are obtained from glucose

6CO+6H₂→1.091C₄H₁₀O₂+1.636CO₂+0.545H₂

4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA is an important starting metabolite from which anumber of industrially useful compounds can be made, including 1,3-BDOas shown in FIG. 3. Although 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA is not a highly commoncentral metabolite, methods for engineering strains that synthesize4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA have been described previously by Applicants inU.S. Patent Application No. 2009/0075351. The 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to1,3-butanediol pathway has a theoretical yield of 1.09 mol/mol productyield assuming glucose as the carbohydrate feedstock.

This invention is also directed, in part, to methods for producing1,3-BDO through culturing of these non-naturally occurring microbialorganisms. Dehydration of 1,3-BDO produced by the organisms and methodsdescribed herein, provides an opportunity to produce renewable butadienein small end-use facilities obviating the need to transport thisflammable and reactive chemical.

As used herein, the term “non-naturally occurring” when used inreference to a microbial organism or microorganism of the invention isintended to mean that the microbial organism has at least one geneticalteration not normally found in a naturally occurring strain of thereferenced species, including wild-type strains of the referencedspecies. Genetic alterations include, for example, modificationsintroducing expressible nucleic acids encoding metabolic polypeptides,other nucleic acid additions, nucleic acid deletions and/or otherfunctional disruption of the microbial genetic material. Suchmodifications include, for example, coding regions and functionalfragments thereof, for heterologous, homologous or both heterologous andhomologous polypeptides for the referenced species. Additionalmodifications include, for example, non-coding regulatory regions inwhich the modifications alter expression of a gene or operon. Exemplarymetabolic polypeptides include enzymes or proteins within a1,3-butanediol biosynthetic pathway.

A metabolic modification refers to a biochemical reaction that isaltered from its naturally occurring state. Therefore, non-naturallyoccurring microorganisms can have genetic modifications to nucleic acidsencoding metabolic polypeptides or, functional fragments thereof.Exemplary metabolic modifications are disclosed herein.

As used herein, the term “isolated” when used in reference to amicrobial organism is intended to mean an organism that is substantiallyfree of at least one component as the referenced microbial organism isfound in nature. The term includes a microbial organism that is removedfrom some or all components as it is found in its natural environment.The term also includes a microbial organism that is removed from some orall components as the microbial organism is found in non-naturallyoccurring environments. Therefore, an isolated microbial organism ispartly or completely separated from other substances as it is found innature or as it is grown, stored or subsisted in non-naturally occurringenvironments. Specific examples of isolated microbial organisms includepartially pure microbes, substantially pure microbes and microbescultured in a medium that is non-naturally occurring.

As used herein, the terms “microbial,” “microbial organism” or“microorganism” is intended to mean any organism that exists as amicroscopic cell that is included within the domains of archaea,bacteria or eukarya. Therefore, the term is intended to encompassprokaryotic or eukaryotic cells or organisms having a microscopic sizeand includes bacteria, archaea and eubacteria of all species as well aseukaryotic microorganisms such as yeast and fungi. The term alsoincludes cell cultures of any species that can be cultured for theproduction of a biochemical.

As used herein, the term “CoA” or “coenzyme A” is intended to mean anorganic cofactor or prosthetic group (nonprotein portion of an enzyme)whose presence is required for the activity of many enzymes (theapoenzyme) to form an active enzyme system. Coenzyme A functions incertain condensing enzymes, acts in acetyl or other acyl group transferand in fatty acid synthesis and oxidation, pyruvate oxidation and inother acetylation.

As used herein, the term “substantially anaerobic” when used inreference to a culture or growth condition is intended to mean that theamount of oxygen is less than about 10% of saturation for dissolvedoxygen in liquid media. The term also is intended to include sealedchambers of liquid or solid medium maintained with an atmosphere of lessthan about 1% oxygen.

“Exogenous” as it is used herein is intended to mean that the referencedmolecule or the referenced activity is introduced into the hostmicrobial organism. The molecule can be introduced, for example, byintroduction of an encoding nucleic acid into the host genetic materialsuch as by integration into a host chromosome or as non-chromosomalgenetic material such as a plasmid. Therefore, the term as it is used inreference to expression of an encoding nucleic acid refers tointroduction of the encoding nucleic acid in an expressible form intothe microbial organism. When used in reference to a biosyntheticactivity, the term refers to an activity that is introduced into thehost reference organism. The source can be, for example, a homologous orheterologous encoding nucleic acid that expresses the referencedactivity following introduction into the host microbial organism.Therefore, the term “endogenous” refers to a referenced molecule oractivity that is present in the host. Similarly, the term when used inreference to expression of an encoding nucleic acid refers to expressionof an encoding nucleic acid contained within the microbial organism. Theterm “heterologous” refers to a molecule or activity derived from asource other than the referenced species whereas “homologous” refers toa molecule or activity derived from the host microbial organism.Accordingly, exogenous expression of an encoding nucleic acid of theinvention can utilize either or both a heterologous or homologousencoding nucleic acid.

The non-naturally occurring microbal organisms of the invention cancontain stable genetic alterations, which refers to microorganisms thatcan be cultured for greater than five generations without loss of thealteration. Generally, stable genetic alterations include modificationsthat persist greater than 10 generations, particularly stablemodifications will persist more than about 25 generations, and moreparticularly, stable genetic modifications will be greater than 50generations, including indefinitely.

Those skilled in the art will understand that the genetic alterations,including metabolic modifications exemplified herein, are described withreference to a suitable host organism such as E. coli and theircorresponding metabolic reactions or a suitable source organism fordesired genetic material such as genes for a desired metabolic pathway.However, given the complete genome sequencing of a wide variety oforganisms and the high level of skill in the area of genomics, thoseskilled in the art will readily be able to apply the teachings andguidance provided herein to essentially all other organisms. Forexample, the E. coli metabolic alterations exemplified herein canreadily be applied to other species by incorporating the same oranalogous encoding nucleic acid from species other than the referencedspecies. Such genetic alterations include, for example, geneticalterations of species homologs, in general, and in particular,orthologs, paralogs or nonorthologous gene displacements.

An ortholog is a gene or genes that are related by vertical descent andare responsible for substantially the same or identical functions indifferent organisms. For example, mouse epoxide hydrolase and humanepoxide hydrolase can be considered orthologs for the biologicalfunction of hydrolysis of epoxides. Genes are related by verticaldescent when, for example, they share sequence similarity of sufficientamount to indicate they are homologous, or related by evolution from acommon ancestor. Genes can also be considered orthologs if they sharethree-dimensional structure but not necessarily sequence similarity, ofa sufficient amount to indicate that they have evolved from a commonancestor to the extent that the primary sequence similarity is notidentifiable. Genes that are orthologous can encode proteins withsequence similarity of about 25% to 100% amino acid sequence identity.Genes encoding proteins sharing an amino acid similarity less that 25%can also be considered to have arisen by vertical descent if theirthree-dimensional structure also shows similarities. Members of theserine protease family of enzymes, including tissue plasminogenactivator and elastase, are considered to have arisen by verticaldescent from a common ancestor.

Orthologs include genes or their encoded gene products that through, forexample, evolution, have diverged in structure or overall activity. Forexample, where one species encodes a gene product exhibiting twofunctions and where such functions have been separated into distinctgenes in a second species, the three genes and their correspondingproducts are considered to be orthologs. For the production of abiochemical product, those skilled in the art will understand that theorthologous gene harboring the metabolic activity to be introduced ordisrupted is to be chosen for construction of the non-naturallyoccurring microorganism. An example of orthologs exhibiting separableactivities is where distinct activities have been separated intodistinct gene products between two or more species or within a singlespecies. A specific example is the separation of elastase proteolysisand plasminogen proteolysis, two types of serine protease activity, intodistinct molecules as plasminogen activator and elastase. A secondexample is the separation of mycoplasma 5′-3′ exonuclease and DrosophilaDNA polymerase III activity. The DNA polymerase from the first speciescan be considered an ortholog to either or both of the exonuclease orthe polymerase from the second species and vice versa.

In contrast, paralogs are homologs related by, for example, duplicationfollowed by evolutionary divergence and have similar or common, but notidentical functions. Paralogs can originate or derive from, for example,the same species or from a different species. For example, microsomalepoxide hydrolase (epoxide hydrolase I) and soluble epoxide hydrolase(epoxide hydrolase II) can be considered paralogs because they representtwo distinct enzymes, co-evolved from a common ancestor, that catalyzedistinct reactions and have distinct functions in the same species.Paralogs are proteins from the same species with significant sequencesimilarity to each other suggesting that they are homologous, or relatedthrough co-evolution from a common ancestor. Groups of paralogousprotein families include HipA homologs, luciferase genes, peptidases,and others.

A nonorthologous gene displacement is a nonorthologous gene from onespecies that can substitute for a referenced gene function in adifferent species. Substitution includes, for example, being able toperform substantially the same or a similar function in the species oforigin compared to the referenced function in the different species.Although generally, a nonorthologous gene displacement will beidentifiable as structurally related to a known gene encoding thereferenced function, less structurally related but functionally similargenes and their corresponding gene products nevertheless will still fallwithin the meaning of the term as it is used herein. Functionalsimilarity requires, for example, at least some structural similarity inthe active site or binding region of a nonorthologous gene productcompared to a gene encoding the function sought to be substituted.Therefore, a nonorthologous gene includes, for example, a paralog or anunrelated gene.

Therefore, in identifying and constructing the non-naturally occurringmicrobial organisms of the invention having 1,3-BDO biosyntheticcapability, those skilled in the art will understand with applying theteaching and guidance provided herein to a particular species that theidentification of metabolic modifications can include identification andinclusion or inactivation of orthologs. To the extent that paralogsand/or nonorthologous gene displacements are present in the referencedmicroorganism that encode an enzyme catalyzing a similar orsubstantially similar metabolic reaction, those skilled in the art alsocan utilize these evolutionally related genes.

Orthologs, paralogs and nonorthologous gene displacements can bedetermined by methods well known to those skilled in the art. Forexample, inspection of nucleic acid or amino acid sequences for twopolypeptides will reveal sequence identity and similarities between thecompared sequences. Based on such similarities, one skilled in the artcan determine if the similarity is sufficiently high to indicate theproteins are related through evolution from a common ancestor.Algorithms well known to those skilled in the art, such as Align, BLAST,Clustal W and others compare and determine a raw sequence similarity oridentity, and also determine the presence or significance of gaps in thesequence which can be assigned a weight or score. Such algorithms alsoare known in the art and are similarly applicable for determiningnucleotide sequence similarity or identity. Parameters for sufficientsimilarity to determine relatedness are computed based on well knownmethods for calculating statistical similarity, or the chance of findinga similar match in a random polypeptide, and the significance of thematch determined. A computer comparison of two or more sequences can, ifdesired, also be optimized visually by those skilled in the art. Relatedgene products or proteins can be expected to have a high similarity, forexample, 25% to 100% sequence identity. Proteins that are unrelated canhave an identity which is essentially the same as would be expected tooccur by chance, if a database of sufficient size is scanned (about 5%).Sequences between 5% and 24% may or may not represent sufficienthomology to conclude that the compared sequences are related. Additionalstatistical analysis to determine the significance of such matches giventhe size of the data set can be carried out to determine the relevanceof these sequences.

Exemplary parameters for determining relatedness of two or moresequences using the BLAST algorithm, for example, can be as set forthbelow. Briefly, amino acid sequence alignments can be performed usingBLASTP version 2.0.8 (Jan. 5, 1999) and the following parameters:Matrix: 0 BLOSUM62; gap open: 11; gap extension: 1; x_dropoff: 50;expect: 10.0; wordsize: 3; filter: on. Nucleic acid sequence alignmentscan be performed using BLASTN version 2.0.6 (Sep. 16, 1998) and thefollowing parameters: Match: 1; mismatch: −2; gap open: 5; gapextension: 2; x_dropoff: 50; expect: 10.0; wordsize: 11; filter: off.Those skilled in the art will know what modifications can be made to theabove parameters to either increase or decrease the stringency of thecomparison, for example, and determine the relatedness of two or moresequences.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism that includes a microbial organism having a1,3-butanediol (1,3-BDO) pathway with at least one exogenous nucleicacid encoding a 1,3-BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amountto produce 1,3-BDO. The 1,3-BDO pathway includes an enzyme selected fromthe group consisting of a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase, anAKP dehydrogenase, a 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate aminotransferase, a2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate oxidoreductase (deaminating), a2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate decarboxylase, a 3-hydroxybutyraldehydereductase, an AKP aminotransferase, an AKP oxidoreductase (deaminating),a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase, a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase(ketone reducing), a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing), a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase, an AKP decarboxylase, a4-aminobutan-2-one aminotransferase, a 4-aminobutan-2-one oxidoreductase(deaminating), a 4-aminobutan-2-one ammonia-lyase, a butenone hydratase,an AKP ammonia-lyase, an acetylacrylate decarboxylase, anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming), anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, alcohol forming), anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketone reducing), a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoAreductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcoholforming), a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, and a crotonase.

Any combination and any number of the aforementioned enzymes can beintroduced into a host microbial organism to complete a 1,3-BDO pathway,as exemplified in FIGS. 1-3. For example, the non-naturally occurringmicrobial organism can include one, two, three, four, five, up to all ofthe nucleic acids in a 1,3-BDO pathway, each nucleic acid encoding a1,3-BDO pathway enzyme. Such nucleic acids can include heterologousnucleic acids, additional copies of existing genes, and gene regulatoryelements, as explained further below. The pathways of the non-naturallyoccurring microbial organisms of the invention are also suitablyengineered to be cultured in a substantially anaerobic culture medium.

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organismshaving a 1,3-BDO pathway include a set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes. A setof 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes represents a group of enzymes that canconvert alanine, acetoacetyl-CoA, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 1,3-BDO, asshow in FIGS. 1-3. Exemplary sets of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes to convertalanine to 1,3-BDO, according to FIG. 1 include (a) (1) a2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP dehydrogenase; (3) a2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate aminotransferase or oxidoreductase(deaminating); (4) a 2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate decarboxylase; and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (b) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP aminotransferase or oxidoreductase(deaminating); (3) a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase; (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (c) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP aminotransferase or oxidoreductase(deaminating); (3) a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase; (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and (5) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (d) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP)thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneaminotransferase or oxidoreductase (deaminating); (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (e) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneaminotransferase or oxidoreductase (deaminating); (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and (5) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (f) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP)thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneammonia-lyase; (4) a butenone hydratase; and (5) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanonereductase; and (g) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) anAKP ammonia-lyase; (3) an acetylacrylate decarboxylase; (4) a butenonehydratase; and (5) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase;

Exemplary sets of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes to convert acetoacetyl-CoA to1,3-BDO, according to FIG. 2 include (h) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoAreductase (CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming); (2) a 3-oxobutyraldehydereductase (ketone reducing); and (3) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase;(i) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA dependent, alcohol forming)and (2) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (j) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoAreductase (CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming); (2) a 3-oxobutyraldehydereductase (aldehyde reducing); and (3) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase;(k) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketone reducing) and (2) a3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and (1) (1) anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketone reducing); (2) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoAreductase (aldehyde forming); and (3) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehydereductase;

Exemplary sets of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes to convert4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 1,3-BDO, according to FIG. 3 include (m) (1) a4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; (2) a crotonase; and (3) a3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and (n) (1) a4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; (2) a crotonase; (3) a3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and (4) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase.

The conversion of alanine to 1,3-BDO can be accomplished by a number ofpathways involving about five enzymatic steps as shown in FIG. 1. In thefirst step of all pathways (Step A), alanine and acetyl-CoA are combinedby 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate thiolase, a highly selective enzyme. Theproduct of this reaction, 2-amino-4-oxopentanoate (AKP) can then betransaminated, reduced, decarboxylated or deaminated as shown in FIG. 1.

In one route, AKP converted to 2,4-dioxopentanoate, a 2-keto acidsimilar in structure to alpha-ketoglutarate, by an aminotransferase ordeaminating oxidoreductase (Step B). 2,4-Dioxopentanoate is thenconverted to 3-oxobutyraldehyde by a 2-ketoacid decarboxylase (Step C).Reduction of the ketone and aldehyde groups to their correspondingalcohols yields 1,3-butanediol. These reductions can occur in eitherorder to form the intermediates 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde (Steps O and P)or 4-hydroxy,2-butanone (Steps D and H).

In another route, the 4-oxo group of AKP is first reduced to a secondaryalcohol by AKP dehydrogenase (Step L). The product,2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate, is then converted to2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate (Step M). The resulting 2-ketoacid isdecarboxylated to 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde (Step N). In the final step ofthis route, the aldehyde of 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde is reduced to aprimary alcohol by 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase, forming1,3-butanediol (Step P).

Yet another route involves decarboxylation of AKP by an amino aciddecarboxylase (Step E). The decarboxylation product, 4-aminobutan-2-one,can either be transaminated or oxidatively deaminated to3-oxobutyraldehyde (Step K) or deaminated to butenone (Step F). When3-oxobutyraldehyde is formed, two alcohol-forming reduction steps areused to form 1,3-butanediol, as described previously (Steps O and P, orSteps D and H). The deamination product, butenone, is then hydrolyzed to4-hydroxy,2-butanone (Step G), which is reduced to 1,3-butanediol by4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase (Step H).

Yet another route involves the deamination of AKP to acetylacrylate(Step I). Acetylacrylate is decarboxylated to butenone (Step J), whichis then converted to 1,3-butandiol by butenone hydratase (Step G) and4-hydroxy,2-butanone reductase (Step H).

Based on the routes described above for the production 1,3-BDO fromalanine, in some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbialorganism has a set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes (1) a2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP dehydrogenase; (3) a2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate aminotransferase or oxidoreductase(deaminating); (4) a 2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate decarboxylase; and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase. Any number of nucleic acids encodingthese enzymes can be introduced into a host microbial organism includingone, two, three, four, up to all five of the nucleic acids that encodethese enzymes. Where one, two, three, or four exogenous nucleic acidsare introduced, such nucleic acids can be any permutation of the fivenucleic acids.

In other embodiments non-naturally occurring microbial organism has aset of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes (1) a2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP aminotransferase oroxidoreductase (deaminating); (3) a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase;(4) a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase. Any number of nucleic acids encodingthese enzymes can be introduced into a host microbial organism includingone, two, three, four, up to all five of the nucleic acids that encodethese enzymes. Where one, two, three, or four exogenous nucleic acidsare introduced, such nucleic acids can be any permutation of the fivenucleic acids.

In still other embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbialorganism has a set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes (1) a2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP aminotransferase oroxidoreductase (deaminating); (3) a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase;(4) a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and (5) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase. Any number of nucleic acids encodingthese enzymes can be introduced into a host microbial organism includingone, two, three, four, up to all five of the nucleic acids that encodethese enzymes. Where one, two, three, or four exogenous nucleic acidsare introduced, such nucleic acids can be any permutation of the fivenucleic acids.

In yet further embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbialorganism has a set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes (1) a2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a4-aminobutan-2-one aminotransferase or oxidoreductase (deaminating); (4)a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase. Any number of nucleic acids encodingthese enzymes can be introduced into a host microbial organism includingone, two, three, four, up to all five of the nucleic acids that encodethese enzymes. Where one, two, three, or four exogenous nucleic acidsare introduced, such nucleic acids can be any permutation of the fivenucleic acids.

In yet still further embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbialorganism has a set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes (1) a2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a4-aminobutan-2-one aminotransferase or oxidoreductase (deaminating); (4)a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and (5) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase. Any number of nucleic acids encodingthese enzymes can be introduced into a host microbial organism includingone, two, three, four, up to all five of the nucleic acids that encodethese enzymes. Where one, two, three, or four exogenous nucleic acidsare introduced, such nucleic acids can be any permutation of the fivenucleic acids.

In still further embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbialorganism has a set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes (1) a2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a4-aminobutan-2-one ammonia-lyase; (4) a butenone hydratase; and (5) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase. Any number of nucleic acids encodingthese enzymes can be introduced into a host microbial organism includingone, two, three, four, up to all five of the nucleic acids that encodethese enzymes. Where one, two, three, or four exogenous nucleic acidsare introduced, such nucleic acids can be any permutation of the fivenucleic acids.

In yet still further embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbialorganism has a set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes (1) a2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP ammonia-lyase; (3) aan acetylacrylate decarboxylase; (4) a butenone hydratase; and (5) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase. Any number of nucleic acids encodingthese enzymes can be introduced into a host microbial organism includingone, two, three, four, up to all five of the nucleic acids that encodethese enzymes. Where one, two, three, or four exogenous nucleic acidsare introduced, such nucleic acids can be any permutation of the fivenucleic acids.

FIG. 2 outlines multiple routes for producing 1,3-butanediol fromacetoacetyl-CoA. One route through steps A, B and C utilizes (i)CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming acetoacetyl-CoA reductase to convertacetoacetyl-CoA into 3-oxobutyraldehyde (FIG. 2, Step A), (ii)3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase to reduce 3-oxobutyraldehyde to3-hydroxybutyraldehyde (FIG. 2, Step B), and (iii) finally,3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase to form 1,3-butanediol (FIG. 2, StepC).

Alternatively, acetoacetyl-CoA can be reduced via the aldehyde formingacetoacetyl-CoA reductase to form 4-hydroxy,2-butanone (FIG. 2, Step D).4-hydroxy,2-butanone can also be formed by the reduction of3-oxobutyraldehyde by the aldehyde reducing 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase(FIG. 2, Step E). Eventually, 4-hydroxy,2-butanone can be reduced toform 1,3-BDO by 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase (FIG. 2, Step F).

Yet another set of 1,3-BDO forming routes rely on the reduction ofacetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by the ketone reducingacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (FIG. 2, Step G). This enzyme reduces theketone function in acetoacetyl-CoA to a hydroxyl group.3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be reduced by the bifunctional alcohol-forming3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase to form 1,3-butanediol (FIG. 2, Step I).Alternatively, it can first be reduced to 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde via thealdehyde forming 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (Step H) and3-hydroxybutyraldehyde can then be reduced as shown in Step C.

Based on the routes described above for the production 1,3-BDO fromacetoacetyl-CoA, in some embodiments, the non-naturally occurringmicrobial organism has a set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes(1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming); (2)a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (3) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase. Any number of nucleic acids encodingthese enzymes can be introduced into a host microbial organism includingone, two up to all three of the nucleic acids that encode these enzymes.Where one or two exogenous nucleic acids are introduced, such nucleicacids can be any permutation of the three nucleic acids.

In other embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism hasa set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes (1) an acetoacetyl-CoAreductase (CoA dependent, alcohol forming) and (2) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase. Any number of nucleic acids encodingthese enzymes can be introduced into a host microbial organism includingone or both of the nucleic acids that encode these enzymes. Where oneexogenous nucleic acid is introduced, such a nucleic acid can be eitherof the two nucleic acids.

In further embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organismhas a set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes (1) anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming); (2) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and (3) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase. Any number of nucleic acids encodingthese enzymes can be introduced into a host microbial organism includingone, two up to all three of the nucleic acids that encode these enzymes.Where one or two exogenous nucleic acids are introduced, such nucleicacids can be any permutation of the three nucleic acids.

In yet further embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbialorganism has a set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes (1) anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketone reducing) and (2) a3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming). Any number of nucleicacids encoding these enzymes can be introduced into a host microbialorganism including one or both of the nucleic acids that encode theseenzymes. Where one exogenous nucleic acid is introduced, such a nucleicacid can be either of the two nucleic acids.

In still further embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbialorganism has a set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes (1) anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketone reducing); (2) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoAreductase (aldehyde forming); and (3) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehydereductase. Any number of nucleic acids encoding these enzymes can beintroduced into a host microbial organism including one, two up to allthree of the nucleic acids that encode these enzymes. Where one or twoexogenous nucleic acids are introduced, such nucleic acids can be anypermutation of the three nucleic acids.

4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA is an important starting metabolite from which anumber of industrially useful compounds can be made. Although4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA is not a highly common central metabolite, methodsfor engineering strains that synthesize 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA have beendescribed in Burk et al. (US 20090075351). An exemplary method involvessynthesizing 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA from succinyl-CoA by employing genesencoding succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (CoA-dependent),4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, andphosphotransbutyrylase activities.

The first step in the pathway involves the dehydration of4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (Step A, FIG. 3) followed by the hydration ofcrotonoyl-CoA to form 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (Step B).3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA then undergoes two reduction steps to form1,3-butanediol carried out by either two enzymes (Steps C and D) or asingle dual-function enzyme (Step E).

Thus, in some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbialorganism has a set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes (1) a4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; (2) a crotonase; and (3) a3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming). Any number of nucleicacids encoding these enzymes can be introduced into a host microbialorganism including one, two up to all three of the nucleic acids thatencode these enzymes. Where one or two exogenous nucleic acids areintroduced, such nucleic acids can be any permutation of the threenucleic acids.

In other embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism hasa set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes that includes (1) a4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; (2) a crotonase; (3) a3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and (4) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase. Any number of nucleic acids encodingthese enzymes can be introduced into a host microbial organism includingone, two, three up to all four of the nucleic acids that encode theseenzymes. Where one, two, or three exogenous nucleic acids areintroduced, such nucleic acids can be any permutation of the fournucleic acids.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting of alanine to2-amino-4-oxopentanoate, 2-amino-4-oxopentanoate to2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate, 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate to2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate, 2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate to3-hydroxybutyraldehyde, and 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde to 1,3-BDO.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting of alanine to2-amino-4-oxopentanoate, 2-amino-4-oxopentanoate to 2,4-dioxopentanoate,2,4-dioxopentanoate to 3-oxobutyraldehyde, 3-oxobutyraldehyde to3-hydroxybutyraldehyde, and 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde to 1,3-BDO.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting of alanine to2-amino-4-oxopentanoate, 2-amino-4-oxopentanoate to 2,4-dioxopentanoate,2,4-dioxopentanoate to 3-oxobutyraldehyde, 3-oxobutyraldehyde to4-hydroxy-2-butanone, and 4-hydroxy-2-butanone to 1,3-BDO.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting of alanine to2-amino-4-oxopentanoate, 2-amino-4-oxopentanoate to 4-aminobutan-2-one,4-aminobutan-2-one to 3-oxobutyraldehyde, 3-oxobutyraldehyde to3-hydroxybutyraldehyde, and 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde to 1,3-BDO.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting of alanine to2-amino-4-oxopentanoate, 2-amino-4-oxopentanoate to 4-aminobutan-2-one,4-aminobutan-2-one to 3-oxobutyraldehyde, 3-oxobutyraldehyde to4-hydroxy-2-butanone, and 4-hydroxy-2-butanone to 1,3-BDO.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting of alanine to2-amino-4-oxopentanoate, 2-amino-4-oxopentanoate to 4-aminobutan-2-one,4-aminobutan-2-one to butenone, butenone to 4-hydroxy-2-butanone, and4-hydroxy-2-butanone to 1,3-BDO.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting of alanine to2-amino-4-oxopentanoate, 2-amino-4-oxopentanoate to acetylacrylate,acetylacrylate to butenone, butenone to 4-hydroxy-2-butanone, and4-hydroxy-2-butanone to 1,3-BDO.

Thus, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbialorganism containing at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding anenzyme or protein, where the enzyme or protein converts the substratesand products of a 1,3-BDO pathway converting alanine to 1,3-BDO, asexemplified by the pathways shown in FIG. 1.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting ofacetoacetyl-CoA to 4-hydroxy-2-butanone, and 4-hydroxy-2-butanone to1,3-BDO.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting ofacetoacetyl-CoA to 3-oxobutyraldehyde, 3-oxobutyraldehyde to4-hydroxy-2-butanone, and 4-hydroxy-2-butanone to 1,3-BDO.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting ofacetoacetyl-CoA to 3-oxobutyraldehyde, 3-oxobutyraldehyde to3-hydroxybutryaldehyde, and 3-hydroxybutryaldehyde to 1,3-BDO.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting ofacetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to3-hydroxybutryaldehyde, and 3-hydroxybutryaldehyde to 1,3-BDO.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting ofacetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, and 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to1,3-BDO.

Thus, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbialorganism containing at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding anenzyme or protein, where the enzyme or protein converts the substratesand products of a 1,3-BDO pathway converting acetoacetyl-CoA to 1,3-BDO,as exemplified by the pathways shown in FIG. 2.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting of4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonoyl-CoA, crotonoyl-CoA to3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutryaldehyde,and 3-hydroxybutryaldehyde to 1,3-BDO.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism having a 1,3-BDO pathway, wherein thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least oneexogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts asubstrate to a product selected from the group consisting of4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonoyl-CoA, crotonoyl-CoA to3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, and 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 1,3-BDO.

Thus, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbialorganism containing at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding anenzyme or protein, where the enzyme or protein converts the substratesand products of a 1,3-BDO pathway, the pathway converting4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 1,3-BDO, as exemplified by the pathways shown inFIG. 3.

Successfully engineering any of these pathways entails identifying anappropriate set of enzymes with sufficient activity and specificity,cloning their corresponding genes into a production host, optimizingfermentation conditions, and assaying for product formation followingfermentation. To engineer a production host for the production of any ofthe aforementioned products, one or more exogenous DNA sequence(s) canbe expressed in microorganisms. In addition, the microorganisms can haveendogenous gene(s) functionally deleted. These modifications will enablethe production of 1,3-BDO using renewable feedstocks.

Below, we describe a number of biochemically characterized genes capableof encoding enzymes that catalyze each of the steps shown in FIGS. 1, 2and 3. Although we describe this method for E. coli, one skilled in theart can apply these teachings to essentially any other organism.Specifically, genes are listed that are native to E. coli in addition togenes in other organisms that can be applied to catalyze the appropriatetransformations when properly cloned and expressed.

The invention is described herein with general reference to themetabolic reaction, reactant or product thereof, or with specificreference to one or more nucleic acids or genes encoding an enzymeassociated with or catalyzing, or a protein associated with, thereferenced metabolic reaction, reactant or product. Unless otherwiseexpressly stated herein, those skilled in the art will understand thatreference to a reaction also constitutes reference to the reactants andproducts of the reaction. Similarly, unless otherwise expressly statedherein, reference to a reactant or product also references the reaction,and reference to any of these metabolic constituents also references thegene or genes encoding the enzymes that catalyze or proteins involved inthe referenced reaction, reactant or product. Likewise, given the wellknown fields of metabolic biochemistry, enzymology and genomics,reference herein to a gene or encoding nucleic acid also constitutes areference to the corresponding encoded enzyme and the reaction itcatalyzes or a protein associated with the reaction as well as thereactants and products of the reaction.

All transformations depicted in FIGS. 1-3 fall into the 8 generalcategories of transformations shown in Table 1. Below is described anumber of biochemically characterized genes in each category.Specifically listed are genes that can be applied to catalyze theappropriate transformations in FIGS. 1-3 when properly cloned andexpressed. Exemplary genes for each of the steps in FIGS. 1-3 areprovided further below in Tables 35-37.

Table 1 shows the enzyme types useful to convert common centralmetabolic intermediates into 1,3-butanediol. The first three digits ofeach label correspond to the first three Enzyme Commission number digitswhich denote the general type of transformation independent of substratespecificity.

TABLE 1 LABEL FUNCTION 1.1.1.a Oxidoreductase (ketone to hydroxyl oraldehyde to alcohol) 1.1.1.c Oxidoreductase (2 step, acyl-CoA toalcohol) 1.2.1.b Oxidoreductase (acyl-CoA to aldehyde) 1.4.1.aOxidoreductase (deaminating) 2.3.1.b Acyltransferase 2.6.1.aAminotransferase 4.1.1.a Carboxy-lyase 4.2.1.a Hydro-lyase 4.3.1.aAmmonia-lyase

Numerous transformation in FIGS. 1, 2 and 3 fall into the category ofoxidoreductases that reduce an aldehyde to alcohol. For example, Steps Dand P in FIG. 1 catalyzed by 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehydereducing) and 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase respectively fall intothis category. Similarly, Steps C and E in FIG. 2 catalyzed by3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase and 3-oxobutyraldehdye reductase(aldehyde reducing) respectively are also oxidoreductases that convertthe aldehyde functionality to alcohol. Pathways in FIG. 3 involveoxidoreductases such as 3-hydroxybutyraldehdye reductase in Step D.

Exemplary genes encoding enzymes that catalyze the conversion of analdehyde to alcohol (i.e., alcohol dehydrogenase or equivalentlyaldehyde reductase) include alrA encoding a medium-chain alcoholdehydrogenase for C2-C14 (Tani et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol.,66:5231-5235 (2000)), ADH2 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Atsumi et al.,Nature, 451:86-89 (2008)), yqhD from E. coli which has preference formolecules longer than C3 (Sulzenbacher et al., J. of Molecular Biology,342:489-502 (2004)), and bdh I and bdh II from C. acetobutylicum whichconverts butyraldehyde into butanol (Walter et al., J. of Bacteriology,174:7149-7158 (1992)). The gene product of yqhD catalyzes the reductionof acetaldehyde, malondialdehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, andacrolein using NADPH as the cofactor (Perez et al., J. Biol. Chem.,283:7346-7353 (2008)). The adhA gene product from Zymomonas mobilis hasbeen demonstrated to have activity on a number of aldehydes includingformaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, and acrolein(Kinoshita et al., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol, 22:249-254 (1985)).Additional aldehyde reductase candidates are encoded by bdh in C.saccharoperbutylacetonicum and Cbei_1722, Cbei_2181 and Cbei_2421 in C.beijerinckii.

Data related to the sequences for each of these exemplary gene productscan be found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown inTable 2.

TABLE 2 Protein GENBANK ID GI NUMBER ORGANISM alrA BAB12273.1 9967138Acinetobacter sp. strain M-1 ADH2 NP_014032.1 6323961 Saccharomycescerevisiae yqhD NP_417484.1 16130909 Escherichia coli bdh I NP_349892.115896543 Clostridium acetobutylicum bdh II NP_349891.1 15896542Clostridium acetobutylicum adhA YP_162971.1 56552132 Zymomonas mobilisbdh BAF45463.1 124221917 Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicumCbei_1722 YP_001308850 150016596 Clostridium beijerinckii Cbei_2181YP_001309304 150017050 Clostridium beijerinckii Cbei_2421 YP_001309535150017281 Clostridium beijerinckii

Enzymes exhibiting 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase activity (EC1.1.1.61) also fall into this category. Such enzymes have beencharacterized in Ralstonia eutropha (Bravo et al., J. Forensic Sci.,49:379-387 (2004)), Clostridium kluyveri (Wolff et al., Protein Expr.Purif., 6:206-212 (1995)) and Arabidopsis thaliana (Breitkreuz et al.,J. Biol. Chem., 278:41552-41556 (2003)). Yet another gene is the alcoholdehydrogenase adhI from Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius (Jeon et al., J.Biotechnol., 135:127-133 (2008)). Data related to the sequences for eachof these exemplary gene products can be found using the followingGenBank accession numbers shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3 PROTEIN GENBANK ID GI NUMBER ORGANISM 4hbd YP_726053.1 113867564Ralstonia eutropha H16 4hbd L21902.1 146348486 Clostridium kluyveri DSM555 4hbd Q94B07 75249805 Arabidopsis thaliana adhI AAR91477.1 40795502Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius M10EXG

Another exemplary enzyme is 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase whichcatalyzes the reversible oxidation of 3-hydroxyisobutyrate tomethylmalonate semialdehyde. This enzyme participates in valine, leucineand isoleucine degradation and has been identified in bacteria,eukaryotes, and mammals. The enzyme encoded by P84067 from Thermusthermophilus HB8 has been structurally characterized (Lokanath et al.,J. Mol. Biol., 352:905-917 (2005)). The reversibility of the human3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase was demonstrated usingisotopically-labeled substrate (Manning et al., Biochem J., 231:481-484(1985)). Additional genes encoding this enzyme include 3hidh in Homosapiens (Hawes et al., Methods Enzymol, 324:218-228 (2000)) andOryctolagus cuniculus (Hawes et al., supra; Chowdhury et al., Biosci.Biotechnol Biochem., 60:2043-2047 (1996)), mmsB in Pseudomonasaeruginosa and Pseudomonas putida (Liao et al., US patent 20050221466),and dhat in Pseudomonas putida (Aberhart et al., J. Chem. Soc.,6:1404-1406 (1979); Chowdhury et al., supra; Chowdhury et al., Biosci.Biotechnol Biochem., 67:438-441 (2003)). Data related to the sequencesfor each of these exemplary gene products can be found using thefollowing GenBank accession numbers shown in Table 4.

TABLE 4 PROTEIN GENBANK ID GI NUMBER ORGANISM P84067 P84067 75345323Thermus thermophilus 3hidh P31937.2 12643395 Homo sapiens 3hidh P32185.1416872 Oryctolagus cuniculus mmsB P28811.1 127211 Pseudomonas aeruginosammsB NP_746775.1 26991350 Pseudomonas putida dhat Q59477.1 2842618Pseudomonas putida

Oxidoreductases that convert a ketone functionality to the correspondinghydroxyl group are also synthetic steps in the disclosed pathways.Notably, Reactions L, O and H in FIG. 1 catalyzed by AKP dehydrogenase,3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing), 4-hydroxy-2-butanonereductase respectively are transformations of this category. The twolatter transformations are also encountered in Steps B and Frespectively in FIG. 2. On similar lines, the acetoacetyl-CoA reductasein Step G of FIG. 2 reduces acetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA.

The reduction of 4-oxo group of 2-amino-4-oxopentanoate (AKP) by adehydrogenase yields 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate (FIG. 1, step L). Thisreaction is very similar to the NAD(P)H-dependent reduction of aspartatesemialdehyde to homoserine catalyzed by homoserine dehydrogenase (EC1.1.13). In many organisms, including E. coli, homoserine dehydrogenaseis a bifunctional enzyme that also catalyzes the ATP-dependentconversion of aspartate to aspartyl-4-phosphate (Starnes et al.,Biochemistry, 11:677-687 (1973)). The functional domains arecatalytically independent and connected by a linker region (Sibilli etal., J. Biol. Chem., 256:10228-10230 (1981)) and both domains aresubject to allosteric inhibition by threonine. The homoserinedehydrogenase domain of the E. coli enzyme, encoded by thrA, wasseparated from the aspartate kinase domain, characterized, and found toexhibit high catalytic activity and reduced inhibition by threonine(James et al., Biochemistry, 41:3720-3725 (2002)). This can be appliedto other bifunctional threonine kinases including, for example, hom1 ofLactobacillus plantarum (Cahyanto et al., Microbiology, 152:205-112(2006)) and Arabidopsis thaliana. The monofunctional homoserinedehydrogenases encoded by hom6 in S. cerevisiae (Jacques et al.,Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 1544:28-41 (2001)) and hom2 in Lactobacillusplantarum (Cahyanto et al., supra) have been functionally expressed andcharacterized in E. coli. Data related to the sequences for each ofthese exemplary gene products can be found using the following GenBankaccession numbers shown in Table 5.

TABLE 5 PROTEIN GENBANK ID GI NUMBER ORGANISM thrA AAC73113.1 1786183Escherichia coli K12 akthr2 O81852 75100442 Arabidopsis thaliana hom6CAA89671 1015880 Saccharomyces cerevisiae hom1 CAD64819 28271914Lactobacillus plantarum hom2 CAD63186 28270285 Lactobacillus plantarum

Acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (Step G, FIG. 2) catalyzing the reduction ofacetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA participates in the acetyl-CoAfermentation pathway to butyrate in several species of Clostridia andhas been studied in detail (Jones et al., Microbiol. Rev., 50:484-524(1986)). The enzyme from Clostridium acetobutylicum, encoded by hbd, hasbeen cloned and functionally expressed in E. coli (Youngleson et al., J.Bacteriol., 171:6800-6807 (1989)). Additionally, subunits of two fattyacid oxidation complexes in E. coli, encoded by fadB and fadJ, functionas 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenases (Binstock et al., Methods Enzymol.,71C:403-411 (1981)). Yet other genes demonstrated to reduceacetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA are phbB from Zoogloea ramigera(Ploux et al., Eur. J. Biochem., 174:177-182 (1988)) and phaB fromRhodobacter sphaeroides (Alber et al., Mol. Microbiol., 61:297-309(2006)). The former gene is NADPH-dependent, its nucleotide sequence hasbeen determined (Peoples et al., Mol. Microbiol. 3:349-357 (1989)) andthe gene has been expressed in E. coli. Substrate specificity studies onthe gene led to the conclusion that it could accept 3-oxopropionyl-CoAas a substrate besides acetoacetyl-CoA (Ploux et al., supra). Additionalgenes include Hbd1 (C-terminal domain) and Hbd2 (N-terminal domain) inClostridium kluyveri (Hillmer and Gottschalk, Biochim. Biophys. Acta3334:12-23 (1974)) and HSD17B10 in Bos taurus (Wakil et al., J. Biol.Chem., 207:631-638 (1954)). Data related to the sequences for each ofthese exemplary gene products can be found using the following GenBankaccession numbers shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6 GI Protein GENBANK ID NUMBER ORGANISM fadB P21177.2 119811Escherichia coli fadJ P77399.1 3334437 Escherichia coli Hbd2 EDK34807.1146348271 Clostridium kluyveri Hbd1 EDK32512.1 146345976 Clostridiumkluyveri hbd P52041.2 Clostridium acetobutylicum HSD17B10 O02691.33183024 Bos Taurus phbB P23238.1 130017 Zoogloea ramigera phaBYP_353825.1 77464321 Rhodobacter sphaeroides

A number of similar enzymes have been found in other species ofClostridia and in Metallosphaera sedula (Berg et al., Archaea. Science,318:1782-1786 (2007)) as shown in Table 7.

TABLE 7 Protein GenBank ID GI number Organism Hbd NP_349314.1NP_349314.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum Hbd AAM14586.1 AAM14586.1Clostridium beijerinckii Msed_1423 YP_001191505 YP_001191505Metallosphaera sedula Msed_0399 YP_001190500 YP_001190500 Metallosphaerasedula Msed_0389 YP_001190490 YP_001190490 Metallosphaera sedulaMsed_1993 YP_001192057 YP_001192057 Metallosphaera sedula

An exemplary alcohol dehydrogenase that converts a ketone to a hydroxylgroup is the secondary alcohol dehydrogenase that was shown to convertacetone to isopropanol in C. beijerinckii (Ismaiel et al., J.Bacteriol., 175:5097-5105 (1993)) and T. brockii (Lamed et al., Biochem.J., 195:183-190 (1981); Peretz et al., Biochemistry, 28:6549-6555(1989)). The gene product of adhA from Pyrococcus furiosus, whichexhibits maximum activity on 2-pentanol and pyruvaldehyde, was shown tohave very broad specificity which includes isopropanol and acetone (Vander et al., Eur. J. Biochem., 268:3062-3068 (2001)). Yet anothersecondary alcohol dehydrogenase with activity on isopropanol and acetoneis encoded by the gene product of adh-A from Rhodococcus ruber (Edeggeret al., Chem. Commun. (Camb), 2402-2404 (2006); Kosjek et al.,Biotechnol. Bioeng., 86:55-62 (2004)). These genes along with others arelisted below in Table 8.

TABLE 8 Protein GenBank ID GI number Organism adh AAA23199.2 60592974Clostridium beijerinckii NRRL B593 adh P14941.1 113443Thermoanaerobacter brockii HTD4 adhA AAC25556 3288810 Pyrococcusfuriosus adh-A CAD36475 21615553 Rhodococcus ruber

Alternatively, there exist several exemplary alcohol dehydrogenases thatconvert a ketone to a hydroxyl functional group. Two such enzymes fromE. coli are encoded by malate dehydrogenase (mdh) and lactatedehydrogenase (ldhA). In addition, lactate dehydrogenase from Ralstoniaeutropha has been shown to demonstrate high activities on substrates ofvarious chain lengths such as lactate, 2-oxobutyrate, 2-oxopentanoateand 2-oxoglutarate (Steinbuchel et al., Eur. J. Biochem., 130:329-334(1983)). Conversion of the oxo functionality to the hydroxyl group canalso be catalyzed by 2-keto1,3-butanediol reductase, an enzyme reportedto be found in rat and in human placenta (Suda et al., Arch. Biochem.Biophys., 176:610-620 (1976); Suda et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res.Commun., 77:586-591 (1977)). All of these enzymes can provide a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase, and a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase. Anadditional enzyme for these steps is the mitochondrial 3-hydroxybutyratedehydrogenase (bdh) from the human heart which has been cloned andcharacterized (Marks et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:15459-15463 (1992)).This enzyme is a dehydrogenase that operates on a 3-hydroxyacid. Datarelated to the sequences for each of these exemplary gene products canbe found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown in Table 9.

TABLE 9 Protein GenBank ID GI number Organism mdh AAC76268.1 1789632Escherichia coli ldhA NP_415898.1 16129341 Escherichia coli ldhYP_725182.1 113866693 Ralstonia eutropha bdh AAA58352.1 177198 Homosapiens

A number of organisms can catalyze the reduction of 4-hydroxy-2-butanoneto 1,3-butanediol, including those belonging to the genus Bacillus,Brevibacterium, Candida, and Klebsiella among others, as described byMatsuyama et al. (1995).

Several transformations in FIGS. 2 and 3 rely on the two-step reductionof acyl-CoA to the corresponding alcohol. For example, Steps D and I inFIG. 2, involving the acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, alcoholforming) and 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), and StepE in FIG. 3 involving 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming),shows such a transformation.

Exemplary two-step oxidoreductases that convert an acyl-CoA to alcoholinclude those that transform substrates such as acetyl-CoA to ethanol(e.g., adhE from E. coli (Kessler et al., FEBS. Lett., 281:59-63 (1991))and butyryl-CoA to butanol (e.g. adhE2 from C. acetobutylicum (Fontaineet al., J. Bacteriol., 184:821-830 (2002)). In addition to reducingacetyl-CoA to ethanol, the enzyme encoded by adhE in Leuconostocmesenteroides has been shown to oxidize the branched chain compoundisobutyraldehyde to isobutyryl-CoA (Kazahaya et al., J. Gen. Appl.Microbiol., 18:43-55 (1972); Koo et al., Biotechnol. Lett., 27:505-510(2005)). Data related to the sequences for each of these exemplary geneproducts can be found using the following GenBank accession numbersshown in Table 10.

TABLE 10 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism adhE NP_415757.1 16129202Escherichia coli adhE2 AAK09379.1 12958626 Clostridium acetobutylicumadhE AAV66076.1 55818563 Leuconostoc mesenteroides

Another exemplary enzyme can convert malonyl-CoA to 3-HP. AnNADPH-dependent enzyme with this activity has characterized inChloroflexus aurantiacus where it participates in the3-hydroxypropionate cycle (Hugler et al., J. Bacteriol., 184:2404-2410(2002); Strauss et al., Eur. J. Biochem., 215:633-643 (1993)). Thisenzyme, with a mass of 300 kDa, is highly substrate-specific and showslittle sequence similarity to other known oxidoreductases (Hugler etal., supra). No enzymes in other organisms have been shown to catalyzethis specific reaction; however there is bioinformatic evidence thatother organisms can have similar pathways (Klatt et al., Environ.Microbiol., 9:2067-2078 (2007)). Enzymes in other organisms includingRoseiflexus castenholzii, Erythrobacter sp. NAP1 and marine gammaproteobacterium HTCC2080 can be inferred by sequence similarity. Datarelated to the sequences for each of these exemplary gene products canbe found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown in Table11.

TABLE 11 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism mcr AAS20429.1 42561982Chloroflexus aurantiacus Rcas_2929 YP_001433009.1 156742880 Roseiflexuscastenholzii NAP1_02720 ZP_01039179.1 85708113 Erythrobacter sp. NAP1MGP2080_00535 ZP_01626393.1 119504313 marine gamma proteobacteriumHTCC2080

Longer chain acyl-CoA molecules can be reduced by enzymes such as thejojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) FAR which encodes an alcohol-forming fattyacyl-CoA reductase. Its overexpression in E. coli resulted in FARactivity and the accumulation of fatty alcohol (Metz et al., PlantPhysiology, 122:635-644 (2000)) (FAR, AAD38039.1, 5020215, Simmondsiachinensis).

The pathways disclosed herein involve numerous oxidoreductase-typetransformations that convert an acyl-CoA to an aldehyde. Specifically,Steps A and H in FIG. 2 catalyzed by acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (aldehydeforming) and 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), and StepC from FIG. 3 showing the transformation catalyzed by3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase.

Several acyl-CoA dehydrogenases are capable of reducing an acyl-CoA toits corresponding aldehyde. Exemplary genes that encode such enzymesinclude the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus acr1 encoding a fatty acyl-CoAreductase (Reiser et al., J. of Bacteriology, 179:2969-2975 (1997)), theAcinetobacter sp. M-1 fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Ishige et al., Appl.Environ. Microbiol., 68:1192-1195 (2002)), and a CoA- and NADP-dependentsuccinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase encoded by the sucD gene inClostridium kluyveri (Sohling et al., J. Bacteriol., 178:871-880(1996)). SucD of P. gingivalis is another succinate semialdehydedehydrogenase (Takahashi et al., J. Bacteriol., 182:4704-4710 (2000)).The enzyme acylating acetaldehyde dehydrogenase in Pseudomonas sp,encoded by bphG, is yet another enzyme demonstrated to oxidize andacylate acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, isobutyraldehydeand formaldehyde (Powlowski et al., J. Bacteriol., 175:377-385 (1993)).In addition to reducing acetyl-CoA to ethanol, the enzyme encoded byadhE in Leuconostoc mesenteroides has been shown to oxidize the branchedchain compound isobutyraldehyde to isobutyryl-CoA (Kazahaya et al.,supra; Koo et al., supra). Butyraldehyde dehydrogenase catalyzes asimilar reaction, conversion of butyryl-CoA to butyraldehyde, insolventogenic organisms such as Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum(Kosaka et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 71:58-61 (2007)).Additional aldehyde dehydrogenase enzyme candidates are found inDesulfatibacillum alkenivorans, Citrobacter koseri, Salmonella enterica,Lactobacillus brevis and Bacillus selenitireducens. Data related to thesequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found usingthe following GenBank accession numbers shown in Table 12.

TABLE 12 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism acr1 YP_047869.1 50086359Acinetobacter calcoaceticus acr1 AAC45217 1684886 Acinetobacter baylyiacr1 BAB85476.1 18857901 Acinetobacter sp. Strain M-1 sucD P38947.1172046062 Clostridium kluyveri sucD NP_904963.1 34540484 Porphyromonasgingivalis bphG BAA03892.1 425213 Pseudomonas sp adhE AAV66076.155818563 Leuconostoc mesenteroides bld AAP42563.1 31075383 Clostridiumsaccharoperbutylacetonicum ald ACL06658.1 218764192 Desulfatibacillumalkenivorans AK-01 ald YP_001452373 157145054 Citrobacter koseri ATCCBAA- 895 pduP NP_460996.1 16765381 Salmonella enterica Typhimurium pduPABJ64680.1 116099531 Lactobacillus brevis ATCC 367 BselDRAFT_1651ZP_02169447 163762382 Bacillus selenitireducens MLS10

An additional enzyme type that converts an acyl-CoA to its correspondingaldehyde is malonyl-CoA reductase which transforms malonyl-CoA tomalonic semialdehyde. Malonyl-CoA reductase is a key enzyme inautotrophic carbon fixation via the 3-hydroxypropionate cycle inthermoacidophilic archaeal bacteria (Berg et al., supra; Thauer, R. K.,Science, 318:1732-1733 (2007)). The enzyme utilizes NADPH as a cofactorand has been characterized in Metallosphaera and Sulfolobus spp (Alberet al., J. Bacteriol., 188:8551-8559 (2006); Hugler et al., supra). Theenzyme is encoded by Msed_0709 in Metallosphaera sedula (Alber et al.,supra; Berg et al., supra). A gene encoding a malonyl-CoA reductase fromSulfolobus tokodaii was cloned and heterologously expressed in E. coli(Alber et al., supra). This enzyme has also been shown to catalyze theconversion of methylmalonyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde (2007).Although the aldehyde dehydrogenase functionality of these enzymes issimilar to the bifunctional dehydrogenase from Chloroflexus aurantiacus,there is little sequence similarity. Both malonyl-CoA reductase enzymeshave high sequence similarity to aspartate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase,an enzyme catalyzing the reduction and concurrent dephosphorylation ofaspartyl-4-phosphate to aspartate semialdehyde. Additional genes can befound by sequence homology to proteins in other organisms includingSulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius and have beenlisted below. Yet another enzyme for CoA-acylating aldehydedehydrogenase is the ald gene from Clostridium beijerinckii (Toth etal., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 65:4973-4980 (1999)). This enzyme hasbeen reported to reduce acetyl-CoA and butyryl-CoA to theircorresponding aldehydes. This gene is very similar to eutE that encodesacetaldehyde dehydrogenase of Salmonella typhimurium and E. coli (Tothet al., supra). Data related to the sequences for each of theseexemplary gene products can be found using the following GenBankaccession numbers shown in Table 13.

TABLE 13 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism MSED_0709 YP_001190808.1146303492 Metallosphaera sedula mcr NP_378167.1 15922498 Sulfolobustokodaii asd-2 NP_343563.1 15898958 Sulfolobus solfataricus Saci_2370YP_256941.1 70608071 Sulfolobus acidocaldarius Ald AAT66436 9473535Clostridium beijerinckii eutE AAA80209 687645 Salmonella typhimuriumeutE P77445 2498347 Escherichia coli

The oxidative deamination of amino groups to their corresponding oxogroups is catalyzed by deaminating oxidoreductases in the EC class1.4.1. Such enzymes utilize NAD⁺, NADP⁺ or FAD⁺ as acceptor. Enzymes inthis class can convert 2-amino-4-oxopentanoate to 2,4-dioxopentanoate(FIG. 1, Step B), 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate to2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate (FIG. 1, Step M) and 4-aminobutan-2-one to3-oxobutyraldehyde (FIG. 1, Step K). Exemplary oxidoreductases operatingon similar substrates include glutamate dehydrogenase (deaminating),encoded by gdhA, leucine dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by ldh,and aspartate dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by nadX. The gdhAgene product from Escherichia coli (McPherson et al., Nucleic. AcidsRes. 11:5257-5266 (1983); Korber et al., J. Mol. Biol. 234:1270-1273(1993)), gdh from Thermotoga maritima (Kort et al., Extremophiles1:52-60 (1997); Lebbink et al., J. Mol. Biol. 280:287-296 (1998);Lebbink et al., J. Mol. Biol. 289:357-369 (1999)), and gdhA1 fromHalobacterium salinarum (Ingoldsby et al., Gene. 349:237-244 (2005))catalyze the reversible interconversion of glutamate to 2-oxoglutarateand ammonia, while favoring NADP(H), NAD(H), or both, respectively.Additional glutamate dehydrogenase gene candidates are found in Bacillussubtilis (Khan et al., Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem. 69:1861-1870 (2005)),Nicotiana tabacum (Purnell et al., Planta 222:167-180 (2005)), Oryzasativa (Abiko et al., Plant Cell Physiol 46:1724-1734 (2005)), Haloferaxmediterranei (Diaz et al., Extremophiles. 10:105-115 (2006)),Halobacterium salinarum (Hayden et al., FEMS Microbiol Lett. 211:37-41(2002)) and yeast (Roca et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol 69:4732-4736(2003)). The Nicotiana tabacum enzyme is composed of alpha and betasubunits encoded by gdh1 and gdh2 (Purnell et al., Planta 222:167-180(2005)). The ldh gene of Bacillus cereus encodes the LeuDH protein thataccepts a wide of range of substrates including leucine, isoleucine,valine, and 2-aminobutanoate (Stoyan et al., J. Biotechnol 54:77-80(1997); Ansorge et al., Biotechnol Bioeng. 68:557-562 (2000)). The nadXgene from Thermotoga maritime encoding for the aspartate dehydrogenaseis involved in the biosynthesis of NAD (Yang et al., J. Biol. Chem.278:8804-8808 (2003)). Data related to the sequences for each of theseexemplary gene products can be found using the GenBank accession numbersshown below in Table 14.

TABLE 14 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism gdhA P00370 118547Escherichia coli gdh P96110.4 6226595 Thermotoga maritima gdhA1NP_279651.1 15789827 Halobacterium salinarum rocG NP_391659.1 16080831Bacillus subtilis gdh1 AAR11534.1 38146335 Nicotiana tabacum gdh2AAR11535.1 38146337 Nicotiana tabacum GDH Q852M0 75243660 Oryza sativaGDH Q977U6 74499858 Haloferax mediterranei GDH P29051 118549Halobactreium salinarum GDH2 NP_010066.1 6319986 Saccharomycescerevisiae ldh P0A393 61222614 Bacillus cereus nadX NP_229443.1 15644391Thermotoga maritima

An enzyme with 4-aminobutan-2-one oxidoreductase (deaminating) activityis required to convert 4-aminobutan-2-one to its corresponding aldehyde(FIG. 1, Step K). Exemplary candidates include 3,5-diaminohexanoatedehydrogenase (EC 1.4.1.11) and lysine 6-dehydrogenase (EC 1.4.1.18).3,5-Diaminohexanoate dehydrogenase interconverts 3-amino acids and3-oxoacids and has been characterized in organisms that ferment lysine.The gene encoding 3,5-diaminohexanoate dehydrogenase, kdd, was recentlyidentified in Fusobacterium nucleatum (Kreimeyer et al., J Biol. Chem.282:7191-7197 (2007)). The enzyme has been purified and characterized inother organisms (Baker et al., J Biol. Chem. 247:7724-7734 (1972); Bakeret al., Biochemistry 13:292-299 (1974)) but the genes associated withthese enzymes are not known. Candidates in other sequenced organisms canbe inferred by sequence homology. Lysine 6-dehydrogenase, encoded by thelysDH genes, catalyzes the conversion of primary amines to theircorresponding aldehydes. This enzyme naturally catalyzes the reversibleoxidative deamination of the 6-amino group of L-lysine to form2-aminoadipate-6-semialdehyde (Misono et al., J Bacteriol. 150:398-401(1982)). Exemplary enzymes are found in Geobacillus stearothermophilus(Heydari et al., Appl Environ. Microbiol 70:937-942 (2004)),Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Hashimoto et al., J Biochem. 106:76-80(1989); Misono and Nagasaki, J Bacteriol. 150:398-401 (1982)), andAchromobacter denitrificans (Ruldeekulthamrong et al., BMB. Rep.41:790-795 (2008)). Data related to the sequences for each of theseexemplary gene products can be found using the following GenBankaccession numbers shown in Table 15.

TABLE 15 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism kdd AAL93966.1 19713113Fusobacterium nucleatum lysDH BAB39707 13429872 Geobacillusstearothermophilus lysDH NP_353966 15888285 Agrobacterium tumefacienslysDH AAZ94428 74026644 Achromobacter denitrificans

2-Amino-4-oxopentanoate (AKP) thiolase or AKP thiolase (AKPT) (Step 1,FIG. 1) is a pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzyme participating inornithine degradation in Clostridium sticklandii (Jeng et al., A.Biochemistry, 13:2898-2903 (1974); Kenklies et al., Microbiology,145:819-826 (1999)). A gene cluster encoding the alpha and beta subunitsof AKPT (or-2 (ortA) and or-3 (ortB)) was recently identified and thebiochemical properties of the enzyme were characterized (Fonknechten etal., J. Bacteriol., In Press (2009)). The enzyme is capable of operatingin both directions and reacts with the D-isomer of alanine. Enzymeengineering can be performed to optimize function with L-alanine as asubstrate. AKPT from Clostridium sticklandii has been characterized butits protein sequence has not yet been published. Enzymes with highsequence homology are found in Clostridium difficile, Alkaliphilusmetalliredigenes QYF, Thermoanaerobacter sp. X514, andThermoanaerobacter tengcongensis MB4 (Fonknechten et al, supra). Datarelated to the sequences for each of these exemplary gene products canbe found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown in Table16.

TABLE 16 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism ortA (A) YP_001086914.1126698017 Clostridium difficile 630 ortB (β) YP_001086915.1 126698018Clostridium difficile 630 Amet_2368 (α) YP_001320181.1 150390132Alkaliphilus metalliredigenes QYF Amet_2369 (β) YP_001320182.1 150390133Alkaliphilus metalliredigenes QYF Teth514_1478 (α) YP_001663101.1167040116 Thermoanaerobacter sp. X514 Teth514_1479 (β) YP_001663102.1167040117 Thermoanaerobacter X514 TTE1235 (α) NP_622858.1 20807687Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis MB4 thrC (β) NP_622859.1 20807688Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis MB4

The conversion of 2-amino-4-oxopentanoate (AKP) to 2,4-dioxopentanoate(Step B, FIG. 1) is accomplished by 2-amino-4-oxopentanoateaminotransferase or oxidoreductase (deaminating). Selection of anappropriate enzyme for this transformation is dependent on thestereochemistry of the substrate. For example, if the substrate is inthe D-configuration, a D-amino acid aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.21) canbe utilized, whereas the L-stereoisomer can utilize anL-aminotransferase such as aspartate aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.1).

Aspartate aminotransferase transfers an amino group from aspartate toalpha-ketoglutarate, forming glutamate and oxaloacetate. Aspartate issimilar in structure to 2-amino-4-oxopentanoate. This conversion iscatalyzed by, for example, the gene products of aspC from Escherichiacoli (Yagi et al., FEBS Lett., 100:81-84 (1979); Yagi et al., MethodsEnzymol., 133:83-89 (1985)), AAT2 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yagi etal., J. Biochem., 92:35-43 (1982)) and ASP5 from Arabidopsis thaliana(Kwok et al., J. Exp. Bot., 55:595-604 (2004); De la et al., Plant J.,46:414-425 (2006); Wilkie et al., Protein Expr. Purif., 12:381-389(1998)). The enzyme from Rattus norvegicus has been shown totransaminate alternate substrates such as 2-aminohexanedioic acid and2,4-diaminobutyric acid (Recasens et al., Biochemistry, 19:4583-4589(1980)). Aminotransferases that work on other amino-acid-like substratescan also catalyze this transformation. Valine aminotransferase catalyzesthe conversion of valine and pyruvate to 2-ketoisovalerate and alanine.The E. coli gene, avtA, encodes one such enzyme (Whalen et al., J.Bacteriol., 150:739-746 (1982)). This gene product also catalyzes theamination of α-ketobutyrate to generate α-aminobutyrate, although theamine donor in this reaction has not been identified (Whalen et al., J.Bacteriol., 158:571-574 (1984)). An additional candidate isalpha-aminoadipate transaminase (EC 2.6.1.39), an enzyme thatparticipates in lysine biosynthesis and degradation in some organisms.The enzyme from Thermus thermophilus, encoded by lysN, is active withseveral alternate substrates including oxaloacetate, 2-oxoisocaproate,2-oxoisovalerate, and 2-oxo-3-methylvalerate (Miyazaki et al.,Microbiol. 150:2327-2334 (2004)). A similar enzyme from Homo sapiens hasbeen characterized (Okuno et al., Enz. Prot. 47:136-148 (1993)). Datarelated to the sequences for each of these exemplary gene products canbe found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown in Table17.

TABLE 17 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism aspC NP_415448.1 16128895Escherichia coli AAT2 P23542.3 1703040 Saccharomyces cerevisiae ASP5P46248.2 20532373 Arabidopsis thaliana got2 P00507 112987 Rattusnorvegicus avtA YP_026231.1 49176374 Escherichia coli lysN BAC76939.131096548 Thermus thermophilus AadAT-II Q8N5Z0.2 46395904 Homo sapiens

When the substrate is present as the D-stereoisomer, transamination canbe catalyzed by D-aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.21), also known as D-aminoacid aminotransferase and D-alanine aminotransferase (DAAT). This classof enzymes is noted for its broad substrate specificity, which isspecies-specific. The D-aminotransferase from Bacillus species YM-1,encoded by dat, has been cloned, sequenced (Tanizawa et al., J. Biol.Chem., 264:2450-2454 (1989)) and the crystal structure has been solved(Peisach et al., Biochemistry, 37:4958-4967 (1998)). This enzyme hasalso been the subject of protein engineering studies to alter thesubstrate specificity (Gutierrez et al., Eur. J. Biochem, 267:7218-7223(2000); Gutierrez et al., Protein Eng., 11:53-58 (1998)). Additionalgenes are found in Bacillus licheniformis ATCC 10716 (Taylor et al.,Biochim. Biophys. Acta., 1350:38-40 (1997)), Staphylococcus haemolyticus(Pucci et al., J. Bacteriol., 177:336-342 (1995)) and Bacillus subtilis(Martinez-Carrion et al., J. Biol. Chem., 240:3538-3546 (1965)). Datarelated to the sequences for each of these exemplary gene products canbe found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown in Table18.

TABLE 18 GenBank Protein ID GI Number Organism dat P19938 118222Bacillus sp. YM-1 dat P54692 1706292 Bacillus licheniformis ATCC 10716dat P54694 1706294 Staphylococcus haemolyticus dat O07597.1 3121979Bacillus subtilis

In reaction K of FIG. 1, 4-aminobutan-2-one is transaminated to form3-oxobutanal. This transformation can likely be catalyzed by anaminotransferase that interconverts terminal amines and aldehydes.Exemplary candidate enzymes are beta-alanine/alpha-ketoglutarateaminotransferase, GABA aminotransferase, 3-amino-2-methylpropionatetransaminase, lysine-6-aminotransferase, 2,4-diaminobutanoatetransaminase, putrescine aminotransferase and diamine aminotransferase.

Cargill has developed and patented a beta-alanine/alpha-ketoglutarateaminotransferase for producing 3-HP from beta-alanine viamalonyl-semialdehyde (Chandra et al., ARch. Microbiol., 176:443-451(2001)). The gene product of SkPYD4 in Saccharomyces kluyveri was alsoshown to preferentially use beta-alanine as the amino group donor(Aberhart et al., J. Chem. Soc. 6:1404-1406 (1979)). SkUGA1 encodes ahomologue of Saccharomyces cerevisiae GABA aminotransferase, UGA1(Ichikawa et al., J. Mol. Catalysis A—Chem., 256:106-112 (2006)),whereas SkPYD4 encodes an enzyme involved in both β-alanine and GABAtransamination (Aberthart et al., Supra). 3-amino-2-methylpropionatetransaminase catalyzes the transformation from methylmalonatesemialdehyde to 3-amino-2-methylpropionate. The enzyme has beencharacterized in Rattus norvegicus and Sus scrofa and is encoded by Abat(Chopra et al., Protein Expr. Purif., 25:533-540 (2002), Kuznetsova etal., FEMS Microbiol. Rev., 29:263-279 (2005)). Enzyme candidates inother organisms with high sequence homology to3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase include Gta-1 in C. elegans andgabT in Bacillus subtilus. Additionally, one of the native GABAaminotransferases in E. coli, encoded by gene gabT, has been shown tohave broad substrate specificity (Fontaine et al., J. Bacteriol.,184:821-830 (2002), Kanamasa et al., Appl. Microbiol Biotechnol.,80:223-229 (2008)). The gene puuE encodes the other 4-aminobutyratetransaminase in E. coli (Drummond et al., J. Biol. Chem., 235:318-325(1960)).

Lysine-6-aminotransferase converts lysine to alpha-aminoadipatesemialdehyde. Candidate enzymes have been characterized in Candidautilis (Hammer et al., J Basic Microbiol 32:21-27 (1992)),Flavobacterium lutescens (Fujii et al., J Biochem. 128:391-397 (2000))and Streptomyces clavuligenus (Romero et al., J Ind. MicrobiolBiotechnol 18:241-246 (1997)). A recombinant lysine-6-aminotransferasefrom S. clavuligenus was functionally expressed in E. coli (Tobin etal., J Bacteriol. 173:6223-6229 (1991)). The F. lutescens enzyme isspecific to alpha-ketoglutarate as the amino acceptor (Soda et al.,Biochemistry 7:4110-4119 (1968)). An enzyme with diaminobutanoatetransaminase activity is encoded by the dat gene product inAcinetobacter baumanii (Ikai et al., J Bacteriol. 179:5118-5125 (1997)).In addition to its natural substrate, 2,4-diaminobutyrate, DATtransaminates the terminal amines of lysine, 4-aminobutyrate andornithine. Candidate putrescine aminotransferase enzymes are encoded byygjG in E. coli and spuC of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Lu et al., JBacteriol. 184:3765-3773 (2002)). The ygiG gene product reacts with thealternate substrates cadaverine, spermidine and 1,7-diaminoheptanoate(Samsonova et al., BMC. Microbiol 3:2 (2003); Kim, J Biol. Chem.239:783-786 (1964)).

Data related to the sequences for each of these exemplary gene productscan be found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown inTable 19.

TABLE 19 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism SkyPYD4 ABF58893.198626772 Saccharomyces kluyveri SkUGA1 ABF58894.1 98626792 Saccharomyceskluyveri UGA1 NP_011533.1 6321456 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Abat P50554.3122065191 Rattus norvegicus Abat P80147.2 120968 Sus scrofa Gta-1Q21217.1 6016091 Caenorhabditis elegans gabT P94427.1 6016090 Bacillussubtilis gabT P22256.1 16130576 Escherichia coli K12 puuE NP_415818.116129263 Escherichia coli K12 lat BAB13756.1 10336502 Flavobacteriumlutescens lat AAA26777.1 153343 Streptomyces clavuligenus dat P56744.16685373 Acinetobacter baumanii ygjG NP_417544 145698310 Escherichia colispuC AAG03688 9946143 Pseudomonas aeruginosa

In FIG. 1, Step C, 2,4-dioxopentanoate is decarboxylated to form3-oxobutyraldehyde by 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase.2,4-dioxopentanoate is similar to the native substrates of pyruvatedecarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.1) and benzoylformate decarboxylase (EC4.1.1.7). Pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), also termed keto-aciddecarboxylase, is a key enzyme in alcoholic fermentation, catalyzing thedecarboxylation of pyruvate to acetaldehyde. The enzyme fromSaccharomyces cerevisiae has a broad substrate range for aliphatic2-keto acids including 2-ketobutyrate, 2-ketovalerate, 3-hydroxypyruvateand 2-phenylpyruvate (Li et al., Biochemistry, 38:10004-10012 (1999)).This enzyme has been extensively studied, engineered for alteredactivity, and functionally expressed in E. coli (Killenberg-Jabs et al.,Eur. J. Biochem., 268:1698-1704 (2001); Li et al., supra; Schure et al.,Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 64:1303-1307 (1998)). The PDC from Zymomonasmobilus, encoded by pdc, also has a broad substrate range and has been asubject of directed engineering studies to alter the affinity fordifferent substrates (Siegert et al., Protein Eng. Des. Sel., 18:345-357(2005)). The crystal structure of this enzyme is available(Killenberg-Jabs, supra). Other well-characterized PDC enzymes includethe enzymes from Acetobacter pasteurians (Chandra et al., Arch.Microbiol. 176:443-451 (2001)) and Kluyveromyces lactis (Krieger et al.,Eur. J. Biochem., 269:3256-3263 (2002)). Data related to the sequencesfor each of these exemplary gene products can be found using thefollowing GenBank accession numbers shown in Table 20.

TABLE 20 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism pdc P06672.1 118391Zymomonas mobilis pdc1 P06169 30923172 Saccharomyces cerevisiae pdcQ8L388 20385191 Acetobacter pasteurians pdc1 Q12629 52788279Kluyveromyces lactis

Like PDC, benzoylformate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.7) has a broadsubstrate range and has been the target of enzyme engineering studies.The enzyme from Pseudomonas putida has been extensively studied andcrystal structures of this enzyme are available (Polovnikova et al.,Biochemistry 42:1820-1830 (2003); Hasson et al., Biochemistry,37:9918-9930 (1998)). Site-directed mutagenesis of two residues in theactive site of the Pseudomonas putida enzyme altered the affinity (Km)of naturally and non-naturally occurring substrates (Siegert et al.,supra). The properties of this enzyme have been further modified bydirected engineering (Lingen et al., Chembiochem, 4:721-726 (2003);Lingen et al., Protein Eng., 15:585-593 (2002)). The enzyme fromPseudomonas aeruginosa, encoded by mdlC, has also been characterizedexperimentally (Barrowman et al., FEMS Microbiology Letters, 34:57-60(1986)). Additional genes from Pseudomonas stutzeri, Pseudomonasfluorescens and other organisms can be inferred by sequence homology oridentified using a growth selection system developed in Pseudomonasputida (Henning et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 72:7510-7517 (2006)).Data related to the sequences for each of these exemplary gene productscan be found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown inTable 21.

TABLE 21 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism mdlC P20906.2 3915757Pseudomonas putida mdlC Q9HUR2.1 81539678 Pseudomonas aeruginosa dpgBABN80423.1 126202187 Pseudomonas stutzeri ilvB-1 YP_260581.1 70730840Pseudomonas fluorescens

A third enzyme capable of decarboxylating 2-oxoacids isalpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase (KGD). The substrate range of thisclass of enzymes has not been studied to date. The KDC fromMycobacterium tuberculosis (Tian et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,102:10670-10675 (2005)) has been cloned and has been functionallyexpressed in E. coli at Genomatica. KDC enzyme activity has beendetected in several species of Rhizobia including Bradyrhizobiumjaponicum and Mesorhizobium loti (Green et al., J. Bacteriol.,182:2838-2844 (2000)). Although the KDC-encoding gene(s) have not beenisolated in these organisms, the genome sequences are available andseveral genes in each genome are annotated as putative KDCs. A KDC fromEuglena gracilis has also been characterized but the gene associatedwith this activity has not been identified to date (Shigeoka et al.,Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 288:22-28 (1991)). The first twenty amino acidsstarting from the N-terminus were sequenced MTYKAPVKDVKFLLDKVFKV(Shigeoka et al., supra). The gene can be identified by testing genescontaining this N-terminal sequence for KDC activity. Data related tothe sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be foundusing the following GenBank accession numbers shown in Table 22.

TABLE 22 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism kgd O50463.4 160395583Mycobacterium tuberculosis kgd NP_767092.1 27375563 Bradyrhizobiumjaponicum USDA110 kgd NP_105204.1 13473636 Mesorhizobium loti

A fourth enzyme for catalyzing this step is the branched chainalpha-ketoacid decarboxylase (BCKA). This class of enzymes has beenshown to act on a variety of compounds varying in chain length from 3 to6 carbons (Oku et al., J. Biol. Chem., 263:18386-18396 (1988); Smit etal., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 71:303-311 (2005)). The enzyme inLactococcus lactis has been characterized on a variety of branched andlinear substrates including 2-oxobutanoate, 2-oxohexanoate,2-oxopentanoate, 3-methyl-2-oxobutanoate, 4-methyl-2-oxobutanoate andisocaproate (Smit et al., supra). The enzyme has been structurallycharacterized (Berthold et al., D. Biol. Crystallogr., 63:1217-1224(2007)). Sequence alignments between the Lactococcus lactis enzyme andthe pyruvate decarboxylase of Zymomonas mobilus indicate that thecatalytic and substrate recognition residues are nearly identical(Siegert et al., supra), so this enzyme is readily amenable to directedengineering. Additional BCKA genes can be identified by homology to theLactococcus lactis protein sequence (kdcA, AAS49166.1, 44921617,Lactococcus lactis). Many of the high-scoring BLASTp hits to this enzymeare annotated as indolepyruvate decarboxylases (EC 4.1.1.74).Indolepyruvate decarboxylase (IPDA) is an enzyme that catalyzes thedecarboxylation of indolepyruvate to indoleacetaldehyde in plants andplant bacteria.

2-amino-4-ketopentanoate is decarboxylated to form 4-aminobutan-2-one byAKP decarboxylase in Step E of FIG. 1. This transformation can becatalyzed by an amino acid decarboxylase. Selection of an appropriatedecarboxylase depends on the stereochemical configuration of4-amino-4-oxopentanoate. When this compound is in a D-configuration, aD-amino acid decarboxylase can be utilized. One such D-amino aciddecarboxylase is diaminopimelate decarboxylase (DDC, EC 4.1.1.20). Thisenzyme decarboxylates the D-stereocenter of meso-diaminopimelate,catalyzing the final step of lysine biosynthesis. DDC has been studiedin many organisms including E. coli (Momany et al., D. Biol.Crystallogr., 58:549-552 (2002)), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Kefala etal., Acta. Crystallogr. Sect. F. Struct. Biol. Cryst. Commun.,61:782-784 (2005); Gokulan et al., J. Biol. Chem., 278:18588-18596(2003); Andersen et al., Gene, 124:105-109 (1993)), Methylophilusmethylotrophus (Tsujimoto et al., J. Biotechnol, 124:327-337 (2006)),and Helicobacter pylori (Hu et al., J. Biol. Chem., 283:21284-21293(2008)). Alternately, the ornithine decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.17) fromHomo sapiens has a weak activity on the D-isomer of ornithine (Qu etal., Biochem. J., 375:465-470 (2003); Fitzgerald et al., DNA, 8:623-634(1989)) and can be used for the decarboxylation in step E. Data relatedto the sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be foundusing the following GenBank accession numbers shown in Table 23.

TABLE 23 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism lysA NP_417315.1 16130742Escherichia coli lysA AAA25361.1 149964 Mycobacterium tuberculosis lysABAC92756.1 37196770 Methylophilus methylotrophus lysA ABW70801.1158523325 Helicobacter pylori odc1 AA59969.1 386989 Homo sapiens

When 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate exhibits L-stereochemistry, an amino aciddecarboxylase such as aspartate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.11), ornithinedecarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.17) or lysine decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.18) can beutilized. An exemplary enzyme is aspartate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.11).2-Amino-4-ketopentanoate bears structural similarity to aspartate, thenative substrate of this enzyme. Aspartate decarboxylase participates inpantothenate biosynthesis and is encoded by panD in Escherichia coli(Dusch et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 65:1530-1539 (1999); Ramjee etal., Biochem. J., 323:661-669 (1997); Merkel et al., FEMS Microbiol.Lett., 143:247-252 (1996); Schmitzberger et al., EMBO J., 22:6193-6204(2003)). The enzymes from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Chopra et al.,Protein Expr. Purif., 25:533-540 (2002)) and Corynebacterium glutanicum(Dusch et al., supra) have been expressed and characterized in E. coli.Lysine decarboxylase enzymes are encoded in the E. coli genome by genescadA and ldcC. A lysine decarboxylase analogous to CadA was recentlyidentified in Vibrio parahaemolyticus (Tanaka et al., J. Appl.Microbiol. 104:1283-1293 (2008)). The lysine decarboxylase fromSelenomonas ruminantium, encoded by ldc, bears sequence similarity toeukaryotic ornithine decarboxylases, and accepts both L-lysine andL-ornithine as substrates (Takatsuka et al., Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem.63:1843-1846 (1999)). Ornithine decarboxylase enzyme candidates arefound in Nicotiana glutinosa (Lee et al., Biochem. J. 360:657-665(2001)), Lactobacillus sp. 30a (Guirard et al., J Biol. Chem.255:5960-5964 (1980)) and Vibrio vulnificus (Lee et al., J Biol. Chem.282:27115-27125 (2007)). The residues involved in substrate specificityVibrio vulnificus have been elucidated (Lee et al., supra).

Data related to the sequences for each of these exemplary gene productscan be found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown inTable 24.

TABLE 24 GI Protein GenBank ID Number Organism panD P0A790 67470411Escherichia coli panD Q9X4N0 18203593 Corynebacterium glutanicum panDP65660.1 54041701 Mycobacterium tuberculosis cadA AAA23536. 145458Escherichia coli ldcC AAC73297.1 1786384 Escherichia coli ldc O50657.113124043 Selenomonas ruminantium cadA AB124819.1 44886078 Vibrioparahaemolyticus AF323910.1:1 . . . 1299 AAG45222.1 12007488 Nicotianaglutinosa odc1 P43099.2 1169251 Lactobacillus sp. 30a VV2_1235NP_763142.1 27367615 Vibrio vulnificus

In reaction J (FIG. 1), acetylacrylate is decarboxylated to 2-oxobuteneby acetoacrylate decarboxylase. An enzyme catalyzing this transformationhas not been identified to date, but similar reactions are catalyzed bythe enzymes aconitate decarboxylase, 4-oxalocrotonate decarboxylase andcinnamate decarboxylase.

Aconitate decarboxylase catalyzes the final step in itaconatebiosynthesis in a strain of Candida and also in the filamentous fungusAspergillus terreus (Bonnarme et al., J. Bacteriol., 177:3573-3578(1995); Willke et al., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 56:289-295 (2001)).A cis-aconitate decarboxylase (CAD) (EC 4.1.16), encoded by ATEG_09971,has been identified and extensively studied in Aspergillus terreus andother related fungi. Recently, the gene has been cloned and functionallycharacterized (Kanamasa et al., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 80:223-229(2008)) and (WO/2009/014437).

4-oxalocronate decarboxylase has been isolated from numerous organismsand characterized. Genes encoding this enzyme include dmpH and dmpE inPseudomonas sp. (strain 600) (Shingler et al., J. Bacteriol.,174:711-724 (1992)), xylII and xylIII from Pseudomonas putida (Kato etal., Arch. Microbiol., 168:457-463 (1997); Stanley et al., Biochemistry,39:3514 (2000); Lian et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 116:10403-10411 (1994))and Reut_B5691 and Reut_B5692 from Ralstonia eutropha JMP134 (Hughes etal., J. Bacteriol., 158:79-83 (1984)). The genes encoding the enzymefrom Pseudomonas sp. (strain 600) have been cloned and expressed in E.coli (Shingler et al., supra). Data related to the sequences for each ofthese exemplary gene products can be found using the following GenBankaccession numbers shown in Table 25.

TABLE 25 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism dmpH CAA43228.1 45685Pseudomonas sp. CF600 dmpE CAA43225.1 45682 Pseudomonas sp. CF600 xylIIYP_709328.1 111116444 Pseudomonas putida xylIII YP_709353.1 111116469Pseudomonas putida Reut_B5691 YP_299880.1 73539513 Ralstonia eutrophaJMP134 Reut_B5692 YP_299881.1 73539514 Ralstonia eutropha JMP134ATEG_09971 EAU29420.1 114187720 Aspergillus terreus

An additional class of decarboxylases has been characterized thatcatalyze the conversion of cinnamate (phenylacrylate) and substitutedcinnamate derivatives to the corresponding styrene derivatives. Theseenzymes are common in a variety of organisms and specific genes encodingthese enzymes that have been cloned and expressed in E. coli are: pad 1from Saccharomyces cerevisae (Clausen et al., Gene, 142:107-112 (1994)),pdc from Lactobacillus plantarum (Barthelmebs et al., Appl. Environ.Microbiol., 67:1063-1069 (2001); Rodriguez et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,56:3068-3072 (2008); Qi et al., Biochem. J., 375:465-470 (2007)), pofK(pad) from Klebsiella oxytoca (Uchiyama et al., Biosci. Biotechnol.Biochem., 72:116-123 (2008); Hashidoko et al., Biosci. Biotech.Biochem., 58:217-218 (1994)), Pedicoccus pentosaceus (Barthelmebs etal., supra) and padC from Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus pumilus (Cavinet al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 64:1466-1471 (1998)). A ferulic aciddecarboxylase from Pseudomonas fluorescens also has been purified andcharacterized (Huang et al., J. Bacteriol., 176:5912-5918 (1994)).Importantly, this class of enzymes has been shown to be stable and doesnot require either exogenous or internally bound co-factors, thus makingthese enzymes ideally suitable for biotransformations (Sariaslani, F.S., Annu. Rev. Microbiol., 61:51-69 (2007)). Data related to thesequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found usingthe following GenBank accession numbers shown in Table 26.

TABLE 26 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism pad1 AAB64980.1 1165293Saccharomyces cerevisae pdc AAC45282.1 1762616 Lactobacillus plantarumpad BAF65031.1 149941608 Klebsiella oxytoca padC NP_391320.1 16080493Bacillus subtilis pad YP_804027.1 116492292 Pedicoccus pentosaceus padCAC18719.1 11691810 Bacillus pumilus

An additional enzyme for decarboxylation is acetoacetate decarboxylase(EC 4.1.1.4), an enzyme that decarboxylates acetoacetate to acetone andhas therefore been studied for its role in bacterial solventogenesis.Exemplary bacterial enzymes have been characterized from Clostridiumacetobutylicum (Benner et al., J. Am. Chem. So. 103:993-994 (1981);HIghbarger et al., Biochemistry 35:41-46 (1996); Petersen et al., Appl.Environ. Microbiol. 56:3491-3498 (1990); Rozzel et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc.106:4937-4941 (1984)) Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum (Kosaka, etal., Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem. 71:58-68 (2007)) and Clostridiumbeijerinckii (Ravagnani et al. Mol. Microbiol. 37:1172-1185 (2000)).Acetoacetate decarboxylase activity has also been demonstrated inPseudomonas putida and Bacillus polymyxa but genes are not associatedwith this activity to date (Matiasek et al., Curr. Microbiol. 42:276-281 (2001)). Bacterial genes in other organisms such as Clostridiumbotulinum and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens can be identified by sequencehomology. In humans and other mammals, acetoacetate decarboxylasecatalyzes the final step of the ketone-body pathway (Kalapos, Biochim.Biophys. Acta 1621:122-139 (2003)), but genes associated with thisactivity have not been identified to date. Data related to the sequencesfor each of these exemplary gene products can be found using thefollowing GenBank accession numbers shown in Table 27.

TABLE 27 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism adc NP_149328.1 15004868Clostridium acetobutylicum adc AAP42566.1 31075386 Clostridiumsaccharoperbutylacetonicum cbei_3835 YP_001310906.1 150018652Clostridium beijerinckii CLL_A2135 YP_001886324.1 187933144 Clostridiumbotulinum RBAM_030030 YP_001422565.1 154687404 Bacillusamyloliquefaciens

All the aforementioned gene candidates can also be used to catalyze thedecarboxylation of 2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate to 3-hydroxybutyraldehydein Step N of FIG. 1.

Butenone hydratase (Step G, FIG. 1), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase(Step A, FIG. 3) and crotonase (Step A, FIG. 3) are hydrolyase-typetransformations. Specifically, the hydration of butenone to4-hydroxy-2-butanone (Step G, FIG. 1) can be accomplished by an enzymein the hydratase family of enzymes. Enzymes that can carry out thistransformation include fumarate hydratase (EC 4.2.1.2),2-(hydroxymethyl)glutarate dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.-), dimethylmaleatehydratase (EC 4.2.1.85) and citramalate hydrolyase (EC 4.2.1.34).

Fumarate hydratase enzymes naturally catalyze the reversible hydrationof fumarate to malate. Although the ability of fumarate hydratase toreact with butanone as a substrate has not been described in theliterature, a wealth of structural information is available for thisenzyme and other researchers have successfully engineered the enzyme toalter activity, inhibition and localization (Weaver, T., B. Biol.Crystallogr., 61:1395-1401 (2005)). E. coli has three fumarases: FumA,FumB, and FumC that are regulated by growth conditions. FumB is oxygensensitive and only active under anaerobic conditions. FumA is activeunder microanaerobic conditions, and FumC is the only active enzyme inaerobic growth (Tseng et al., J. Bacteriol., 183:461-467 (2001); Woodset al., Biochem. Biophys. Acta., 954:14-26 (1988); Guest et al., J. Gen.Microbiol., 131:2971-2984 (1985)). Additional enzymes are found inCampylobacter jejuni (Smith et al., Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol.,31:961-975 (1999)), Thermus thermophilus (Mizobata et al., Arch.Biochem. Biophys., 355:49-55 (1998)) and Rattus norvegicus (Kobayashi etal., J. Biochem., 89:1923-1931 (1981)). Similar enzymes with highsequence homology include fum1 from Arabidopsis thaliana and fumC fromCorynebacterium glutamicum. The MmcBC fumarase from Pelotomaculumthermopropionicum is another class of fumarase with two subunits(Shimoyama et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 270:207-213 (2007)). Datarelated to the sequences for each of these exemplary gene products canbe found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown in Table28.

TABLE 28 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism fumA NP_416129.1 16129570Escherichia coli fumB NP_418546.1 16131948 Escherichia coli fumCNP_416128.1 16129569 Escherichia coli fumC O69294 9789756 Campylobacterjejuni fumC P84127 75427690 Thermus thermophilus fumH P14408 120605Rattus norvegicus fum1 P93033 39931311 Arabidopsis thaliana fumC Q8NRN839931596 Corynebacterium glutamicum MmcB YP_001211906 147677691Pelotomaculum thermopropionicum MmcC YP_001211907 147677692Pelotomaculum thermopropionicum

Two additional hydratase enzymes are 2-(hydroxymethyl)glutaratedehydratase and dimethylmaleate hydratase, enzymes studied for theirrole in nicontinate catabolism in Eubacterium barkeri (formerlyClostridium barkeri) (Alhapel et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,103:12341-12346 (2006)). 2-(Hydroxymethyl)glutarate dehydratase is a[4Fe-4S]-containing enzyme that dehydrates 2-(hydroxymethyl)glutarate to2-methylene-glutarate. This enzyme is encoded by hmd in Eubacteriumbarkeri (Alhapel et al., supra). Similar enzymes with high sequencehomology are found in Bacteroides capillosus, Anaerotruncus colihominis,and Natranaerobius thermophilius. These enzymes are homologous to thealpha and beta subunits of [4Fe-4S]-containing bacterial serinedehydratases (e.g., E. coli enzymes encoded by tdcG, sdhB, and sdaA).Dimethylmaleate hydratase (EC 4.2.1.85) is a reversible Fe²⁺-dependentand oxygen-sensitive enzyme in the aconitase family that hydratesdimethylmaeate to form (2R,3S)-2,3-dimethylmalate. This enzyme isencoded by dmdAB in Eubacterium barkeri (Alhapel, et al., supra;Kollmann-Koch et al., Physiol. Chem., 365:847-857 (1984)). Data relatedto the sequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be foundusing the following GenBank accession numbers shown in Table 29.

TABLE 29 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism hmd ABC88407.1 86278275Eubacterium barkeri BACCAP_02294 ZP_02036683.1 154498305 Bacteroidescapillosus ATCC 29799 ANACOL_02527 ZP_02443222.1 167771169 Anaerotruncuscolihominis DSM 17241 NtherDRAFT_2368 ZP_02852366.1 169192667Natranaerobius thermophilus JW/NM-WN-LF dmdA ABC88408 86278276Eubacterium barkeri dmdB ABC88409.1 86278277 Eubacterium barkeri

An additional enzyme is 2-methylmalate dehydratase, also calledcitramalate hydrolyase, a reversible hydrolyase that catalyzes thealpha, beta elimination of water from citramalate to form mesaconate.This enzyme has been purified and characterized in Clostridiumtetanomorphum (Wang et al., J. Biol. Chem., 244:2516-2526 (1969)). Theactivity of this enzyme has also been detected in several bacteria inthe genera Citrobacter and Morganella in the context of the glutamatedegradation VI pathway (Kato et al., supra). Genes encoding this enzymehave not been identified in any organism to date.

Hydration of crotonyl-CoA to form 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (Step B, FIG. 3)is catalyzed by a crotonase (EC 4.2.1.55). These enzymes are requiredfor n-butanol formation in some organisms, particularly Clostridialspecies, and also comprise one step of the3-hydroxypropionate/4-hydroxybutyrate cycle in thermoacidophilic Archaeaof the genera Sulfolobus, Acidianus, and Metallosphaera. Exemplary genesencoding crotonase enzymes can be found in C. acetobutylicum (Boynton etal., J. Bacteriol., 178:3015-3024 (1996)), C. kluyveri (Hillmer et al.,FEBS Lett., 21:351-354 (1972)), and Metallosphaera sedula (Berg et al.,supra). Enoyl-CoA hydratases, which are involved in fatty acidbeta-oxidation and/or the metabolism of various amino acids, can alsocatalyze the hydration of crotonyl-CoA to form 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA(Roberts et al., Arch. Microbiol., 117:99-108 (1978); Agnihotri et al.,Bioorg. Med. Chem., 11:9-20 (2003); Conrad et al., J. Bacteriol.,118:103-111 (1974)). An exemplary enoyl-CoA hydratase is the geneproduct of ech from Pseudomonas putida (Roberts et al., supra). Theenoyl-CoA hydratases, phaA and phaB, of P. putida have been indicated tocarry out the hydroxylation of double bonds during phenylacetatecatabolism (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA, 95:6419-6424(1998)). The paaA and paaB from P. fluorescens catalyze analogoustransformations (Olivera et al., supra). Lastly, a number of Escherichiacoli genes have been shown to demonstrate enoyl-CoA hydratasefunctionality including maoC (Park et al., J. Bacteriol., 185:5391-5397(2003)), paaF (Ismail et al., Eur. J. Biochem., 270:3047-3054 (2003);Park et al., Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol., 113-116:335-346 (2004); Park etal., Biotechnol Bioeng., 86:681-686 (2004)) and paaG (Ismail et al.,supra; Park et al., supra; Park et al., supra). Data related to thesequences for each of these exemplary gene products can be found usingthe following GenBank accession numbers shown in Table 30.

TABLE 30 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism crt NP_349318.1 15895969Clostridium acetobutylicum crt1 YP_001393856 153953091 Clostridiumkluyveri DSM 555 ech NP_745498.1 26990073 Pseudomonas putida phaAABF82233.1 26990002 Pseudomonas putida phaB ABF82234.1 26990001Pseudomonas putida paaA NP_745427.1 106636093 Pseudomonas fluorescenspaaB NP_745426.1 106636094 Pseudomonas fluorescens maoC NP_415905.116129348 Escherichia coli paaF NP_415911.1 16129354 Escherichia colipaaG NP_415912.1 16129355 Escherichia coli

Alternatively, the E. coli gene products of fadA and fadB encode amultienzyme complex involved in fatty acid oxidation that exhibitsenoyl-CoA hydratase activity (Haller et al., Biochemistry 39:4622-4629(2000); Martinez-Carrion et a., J. Biol. Chem. 240:3538-3546 (1965);Matthies et al., Appl. Environ. Micriobiol. 58:1435-1439 (1992)).Knocking out a negative regulator encoded by fadR can be utilized toactivate the fadB gene product (Jeng et al., A. Biochemistry13:2898-2903 (1974)). The fadI and fadJ genes encode similar functionsand are naturally expressed under anaerobic conditions (Atsumi et al.,Nature 451:86-89 (2008)). Data related to the sequences for each ofthese exemplary gene products can be found using the following GenBankaccession numbers shown in Table 31.

TABLE 31 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism fadA YP_026272.1 49176430Escherichia coli fadB NP_418288.1 16131692 Escherichia coli fadINP_416844.1 16130275 Escherichia coli fadJ NP_416843.1 16130274Escherichia coli fadR NP_415705.1 16129150 Escherichia coli

The reversible condensation of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA(Step A, FIG. 3) is catalyzed by the bifunctional enzyme4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase/vinylacetyl-CoA 4-isomerase. Thisenzyme first dehydrates 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to vinylacetyl-CoA, whichsubsequently rearranges to form crotonoyl-CoA. The enzymes fromClostridium kluyveri and C. aminobutyrium have been purified,characterized, and sequenced at the N-terminal domain (Scherf et al.,Eur. J. Biochem., 215:421-429 (1993); Scherf et al., Arch. Microbiol.,161:239-245 (1994)). The abfD genes from C. aminobutyrium and C.kluyveri match exactly with these N-terminal amino acid sequences, andhave been indicated to encode the 4-hydroxybutyrul-CoAdehydratases/vinylacetyl-CoA Δ-isomerase activities. Similar genes areidentified through homology from genome projects, including abfD fromPorphyromonas gingivalis and Msed_1220 from Metallosphaera sedula. Datarelated to the sequences for each of these exemplary gene products canbe found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown in Table32.

TABLE 32 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism abfD YP_001396399.1153955634 Clostridium kluyveri abfD P55792 84028213 Clostridiumaminobutyricum abfD YP_001928843 188994591 Porphyromonas gingivalisMsed_1220 YP_001191305.1 146303989 Metallosphaera sedula

Deamination of 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (FIG. 1, Reaction I) and of4-aminobutan-2-one (Step F, FIG. 1) can be accomplished by AKPammonia-lyase and 4-aminobutan-2-one ammonia-lyase respectively. Thesedeaminations are very similar to the deamination of aspartate tofumarate by aspartase. The enzyme has been extensively studied andseveral crystal structures are available. The E. coli enzyme has beenshown to react with alternate substrates such asaspartatephenylmethylester, asparagine, benzyl-aspartate and malate (Maet al., Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 672:60-65 (1992). In a separate study,directed evolution has been implemented on this enzyme to altersubstrate specificity (Asano et al., Biomol. Eng., 22:95-101 (2005)).Enzymes with aspartase functionality have also been characterized inHaemophilus influenzae (Sjostrom et al., Biochem. Biophys. Acta.,1324:182-190 (1997)), Pseudomonas fluorescens (Takagi et al., J.Biochem., 96:545-552 (1984)), Bacillus subtilus (Sjostrom et al., supra)and Serratia marcescens (Takagi et al., J. Bacteriol., 161:1-6 (1985)).Data related to the sequences for each of these exemplary gene productscan be found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown inTable 33.

TABLE 33 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism aspA NP_418562 90111690Escherichia coli aspA P44324.1 1168534 Haemophilus influenzae aspAP07346.1 114273 Pseudomonas fluorescens ansB P26899.1 251757243 Bacillussubtilus aspA P33109.1 416661 Serratia marcescens

A similar ammonia lyase reaction is catalyzed by methylaspartase (EC4.3.1.2), an enzyme participating in the glutamate fermentation routevia mesaconate (Kato et al., supra). This enzyme, also known asbeta-methylaspartase and 3-methylaspartate ammonia-lyase, naturallycatalyzes the deamination of threo-3-methylasparatate to mesaconate. The3-methylaspartase from Clostridium tetanomorphum has been cloned,functionally expressed in E. coli, and crystallized (Asuncion et al.,57:731-733 (2001); Asuncion et al., J Biol Chem. 277:8306-8311 (2002);Botting et al., 27:2953-2955 (1988); Goda et al., 31:10747-10756(1992)). In Citrobacter amalonaticus, this enzyme is encoded by BAA28709(Kato et al., Arch. Microbiol 168:457-463 (1997)). 3-Methylaspartase hasalso been crystallized from E. coli YG1002 (Asano et al., FEMS MicrobiolLett. 118:255-258 (1994)) although the protein sequence is not listed inpublic databases such as GenBank. Data related to the sequences for eachof these exemplary gene products can be found using the followingGenBank accession numbers shown in Table 34.

TABLE 34 Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism mal AAB24070.1 259429Clostridium tetanomorphum BAA28709 BAA28709.1 3184397 Citrobacteramalonaticus

In some embodiments, the 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase encodedby one or more genes selected from the group consisting of ortA (α),ortB (β), Amet_2368 (α), Amet_2369 (β), Teth514_1478 (α), Teth514_1479(β), TTE1235 (α), and thrC (β).

In some embodiments, the AKP dehydrogenase is encoded by one or moregenes selected from the group consisting of thrA, akthr2, hom6, hom1,hom2, fadB, fadJ, Hbd2, Hbd1, hbd, HSD17B10, phbB, phaB, Msed_1423,Msed_0399, Msed_0389, Msed_1993, adh, adhA, adh-A, mdh, ldhA, ldh, andbdh.

In some embodiments, the 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate aminotransferase isencoded by one or more genes selected from the group consisting of aspC,AAT2, ASP5, got2, avtA, lysN, AadAT-II, dat, lat, ygjG, spuC, SkyPYD4,SkUGA1, UGA1, Abat, Abat, Gta-1, gabT, and puuE.

In some embodiments, the 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate oxidoreductase(deaminating) is encoded by one or more genes selected from the groupconsisting of gdhA, gdh, gdhA1, rocG, gdh1, gdh2, GDH, GDH2, ldh andnadX.

In some embodiments, the 2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate decarboxylase isencoded by one or more genes selected from the group consisting of pdc,pdc1, mdlC, dpgB, ilvB-1, kgd, kdcA, lysA, panD, cadA, ldc, ldcC,AF323910.1:1 . . . 1299, odc1, VV2_1235, dmpH, dmpE, xylII, xylIII,Reut_B5691, Reut_B5692, CAD, pad1, pofK (pad), padC, pad, adc,cbei_3835, CLL_A2135, RBAM_030030,

In some embodiments, the 3-hydroxybutyraldehdye reductase is encoded byone or more genes selected from the group consisting of alrA, ADH2,yqhD, bdh I, bdh II, adhA, 4hbd, adhI, P84067, mmsb, dhat, and 3hidh.

In some embodiments, the AKP aminotransferase is encoded by one or moregenes selected from the group consisting of aspC, AAT2, ASP5, got2,avtA, lysN, AadAT-II, dat, lat, ygjG, spuC, SkyPYD4, SkUGA1, UGA1, Abat,Gta-1, gabT, and puuE.

In some embodiments, the AKP oxidoreductase (deaminating) is encoded byone or more genes selected from the group consisting of gdhA, gdh,gdhA1, rocG, gdh1, gdh2, GDH, GDH2, ldh and nadX. In some embodiments,the 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase is encoded by one or more genesselected from the group consisting of pdc, pdc1, mdlC, dpgB, ilvB-1,kgd, kdcA, lysA, panD, cadA, ldc, ldcC, AF323910.1:1 . . . 1299, odc1,VV2_1235, dmpH, dmpE, xylII, xylIII, Reut_B5691, Reut_B5692, CAD, pad1,padC, and pad, adc, cbei_3835, CLL_A2135, RBAM_030030.

In some embodiments, the 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing)is encoded by one or more genes selected from the group consisting ofthrA, akthr2, hom6, hom1, hom2, fadB, fadJ, Hbd2, Hbd1, hbd, HSD17B10,phbB, phaB, Msed_1423, Msed_0399, Msed_0389, Msed_1993, adh, adhA,adh-A, mdh, ldhA, ldh, and bdh.

In some embodiments, the 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehydereducing) is encoded by one or more genes selected from the groupconsisting of alrA, ADH2, yqhD, bdh I, bdh II, adhA, 4hbd, adhI, P84067,mmsb, dhat, and 3hidh.

In some embodiments, the 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase is encoded byone or more genese selected from the group consisting of thrA, akthr2,hom6, hom1, hom2, fadB, fadJ, Hbd2, Hbd1, hbd, HSD17B10, phbB, phaB,Msed_1423, Msed_0399, Msed_0389, Msed_1993, adh, adhA, adh-A, mdh, ldhA,ldh, and bdh.

In some embodiments, the AKP decarboxylase is encoded by one or moregenes selected from the group consisting of pdc, pdc1, mdlC, dpgB,ilvB-1, kgd, kdcA, lysA, panD, cadA, ldc, ldcC, AF323910.1:1 . . . 1299,odc1, VV2_1235, dmpH, dmpE, xylII, xylIII, Reut_B5691, Reut_B5692, CAD,pad1, pofK(pad), padC, pad.

In some embodiments, the 4-aminobutan-2-one aminotransferase is encodedby one or more genes selected from the group consisting of aspC, AAT2,ASP5, got2, avtA, lysN, AadAT-II, dat, lat, ygjG, spuC, SkyPYD4, SkUGA1,UGA1, Abat, Gta-1, gabT, and puuE.

In some embodiments, the 4-aminobutan-2-one oxidoreductase (deaminating)is encoded by one or more genes selected from the group consisting ofgdhA, gdh, gdhA1, rocG, gdh1, gdh2, GDH, GDH2, ldh, nadX, kdd and lysDH.

In some embodiments, the 4-aminobutan-2-one ammonia-lyase is encoded byone or more genes selected from the group consisting of aspA, ansB, maland BAA28709.

In some embodiments, the butenone hydratase is encoded by one or moregenes selected from the group consisting of fumA, fumB, fumC, fumH,fum1, MmcB, MmcC, hmd, BACCAP_02294, ANACOL_02527, NtherDRAFT_2368,dmdA, dmdB, crt, crt1, ech paaA, paaB, phaA, phaB, maoC, paaF, paaG,abfD, Msed_1220, fadA, fadB, fadI, fadJ, and fadR.

In some embodiments, the AKP ammonia-lyase is encoded by one or moregenes selected from the group consisting of aspA, ansB, mal andBAA28709.

In some embodiments, the acetylacrylate decarboxylase is encoded by oneor more genes selected from the group consisting of pdc, pdc1, mdlC,dpgB, ilvB-1, kgd, kdcA, lysA, panD, cadA, ldc, ldcC, AF323910.1:1 . . .1299, odc1, VV2_1235, dmpH, dmpE, xylII, xylIII, Reut_B5691, Reut_B5692,CAD, pad1, pofK (pad), padC, pad, adc, cbei_3835, CLL_A2135,RBAM_030030)

In some embodiments, the acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent,aldehyde forming) is encoded by one or more genes selected from thegroup consisting of acr1, sucD, bphG, bld, adhE, Msed_0709, mcr, asd-2,Saci_2370, Ald, and eutE.

In some embodiments, the acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent,alcohol forming) is encoded by one or more genes selected from the groupconsisting of adhE, adhE2, mcr, Rcas_2929, NAP1_02720, MGP2080_00535,and FAR.

In some embodiments, the acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketone reducing) isencoded by one or more genes selected from the group consisting of thrA,akthr2, hom6, hom1, hom2, fadB, fadJ, Hbd2, Hbd1, hbd, HSD17B10, phbB,phaB, Msed_1423, Msed_0399, Msed_0389, Msed_1993, adh, adhA, adh-A, mdh,ldhA, ldh, and bdh.

In some embodiments, the 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehydeforming) is encoded by one or more genes selected from the groupconsisting of acr1, sucD, bphG, bld, adhE, Msed_0709, mcr, asd-2,Saci_2370, Ald, and eutE.

In some embodiments, the 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcoholforming) is encoded by one or more genes selected from the groupconsisting of adhE, adhE2, mcr, Rcas_2929, NAP1_02720, MGP2080_00535,and FAR.

In some embodiments, the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase is encoded byone or more genes selected from the group consisting of fumA, fumB,fumC, fumH, fum1, MmcB, MmcC, hmd, BACCAP 02294, ANACOL 02527,NtherDRAFT 2368, dmdA, dmdB, crt, crt1, ech, paaA, paaB, phaA, phaB,maoC, paaF, paaG, abfD, Msed_1220, fadA, fadB, fadI, fadJ, and fadR.

In some embodiments, the crotonase is encoded by one or more genesselected from the group consisting of fumA, fumB, fumC, fumH, fum1,MmcB, MmcC, hmd, BACCAP_02294, ANACOL_02527, NtherDRAFT_2368, dmdA,dmdB, crt, crt1, ech paaA, paaB, phaA, phaB, maoC, paaF, paaG, abfD,Msed_1220, fadA, fadB, fadI, fadJ, and fadR.

The non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can beproduced by introducing expressible nucleic acids encoding one or moreof the enzymes or proteins participating in one or more 1,3-butanediolbiosynthetic pathways. Depending on the host microbial organism chosenfor biosynthesis, nucleic acids for some or all of a particular1,3-butanediol biosynthetic pathway can be expressed. For example, if achosen host is deficient in one or more enzymes or proteins for adesired biosynthetic pathway, then expressible nucleic acids for thedeficient enzyme(s) or protein(s) are introduced into the host forsubsequent exogenous expression. Alternatively, if the chosen hostexhibits endogenous expression of some pathway genes, but is deficientin others, then an encoding nucleic acid is needed for the deficientenzyme(s) or protein(s) to achieve 1,3-butanediol biosynthesis. Thus, anon-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention can beproduced by introducing exogenous enzyme or protein activities to obtaina desired biosynthetic pathway or a desired biosynthetic pathway can beobtained by introducing one or more exogenous enzyme or proteinactivities that, together with one or more endogenous enzymes orproteins, produces a desired product such as 1,3-butanediol.

Depending on the 1,3-butanediol biosynthetic pathway constituents of aselected host microbial organism, the non-naturally occurring microbialorganisms of the invention will include at least one exogenouslyexpressed 1,3-butanediol pathway-encoding nucleic acid and up to allencoding nucleic acids for one or more 1,3-butanediol biosyntheticpathways. For example, 1,3-butanediol biosynthesis can be established ina host deficient in a pathway enzyme or protein through exogenousexpression of the corresponding encoding nucleic acid. In a hostdeficient in all enzymes or proteins of an 1,3-butanediol pathway,exogenous expression of all enzyme or proteins in the pathway can beincluded, although it is understood that all enzymes or proteins of apathway can be expressed even if the host contains at least one of thepathway enzymes or proteins. For example, exogenous expression of allenzymes or proteins in a pathway for production of 1,3-butanediol can beincluded.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in theart will understand that the number of encoding nucleic acids tointroduce in an expressible form will, at least, parallel the1,3-butanediol pathway deficiencies of the selected host microbialorganism. Therefore, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of theinvention can have one, two, three, four, five, up to all nucleic acidsencoding the enzymes or proteins constituting an 1,3-butanediolbiosynthetic pathway disclosed herein. In some embodiments, thenon-naturally occurring microbial organisms also can include othergenetic modifications that facilitate or optimize 1,3-butanediolbiosynthesis or that confer other useful functions onto the hostmicrobial organism. One such other functionality can include, forexample, augmentation of the synthesis of one or more of the1,3-butanediol pathway precursors such as acetyl-CoA.

Generally, a host microbial organism is selected such that it producesthe precursor of an 1,3-butanediol pathway, either as a naturallyproduced molecule or as an engineered product that either provides denovo production of a desired precursor or increased production of aprecursor naturally produced by the host microbial organism. Forexample, acetyl-CoA is produced naturally in a host organism such as E.coli. A host organism can be engineered to increase production of aprecursor, as disclosed herein. In addition, a microbial organism thathas been engineered to produce a desired precursor can be used as a hostorganism and further engineered to express enzymes or proteins of an1,3-butanediol pathway.

In some embodiments, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of theinvention is generated from a host that contains the enzymaticcapability to synthesize 1,3-butanediol. In this specific embodiment itcan be useful to increase the synthesis or accumulation of an1,3-butanediol pathway product to, for example, drive 1,3-butanediolpathway reactions toward 1,3-butanediol production. Increased synthesisor accumulation can be accomplished by, for example, overexpression ofnucleic acids encoding one or more of the above-described 1,3-butanediolpathway enzymes or proteins. Over expression the enzyme or enzymesand/or protein or proteins of the 1,3-butanediol pathway can occur, forexample, through exogenous expression of the endogenous gene or genes,or through exogenous expression of the heterologous gene or genes.Therefore, naturally occurring organisms can be readily generated to benon-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention, forexample, producing 1,3-butanediol, through overexpression of one, two,three, four, five, that is, up to all nucleic acids encoding1,3-butanediol biosynthetic pathway enzymes or proteins. In addition, anon-naturally occurring organism can be generated by mutagenesis of anendogenous gene that results in an increase in activity of an enzyme inthe 1,3-butanediol biosynthetic pathway.

In particularly useful embodiments, exogenous expression of the encodingnucleic acids is employed. Exogenous expression confers the ability tocustom tailor the expression and/or regulatory elements to the host andapplication to achieve a desired expression level that is controlled bythe user. However, endogenous expression also can be utilized in otherembodiments such as by removing a negative regulatory effector orinduction of the gene's promoter when linked to an inducible promoter orother regulatory element. Thus, an endogenous gene having a naturallyoccurring inducible promoter can be up-regulated by providing theappropriate inducing agent, or the regulatory region of an endogenousgene can be engineered to incorporate an inducible regulatory element,thereby allowing the regulation of increased expression of an endogenousgene at a desired time. Similarly, an inducible promoter can be includedas a regulatory element for an exogenous gene introduced into anon-naturally occurring microbial organism.

It is understood that, in methods of the invention, any of the one ormore exogenous nucleic acids can be introduced into a microbial organismto produce a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of theinvention. The nucleic acids can be introduced so as to confer, forexample, 1,3-butanediolbiosynthetic pathway onto the microbial organism.Alternatively, encoding nucleic acids can be introduced to produce anintermediate microbial organism having the biosynthetic capability tocatalyze some of the required reactions to confer 1,3-butanediolbiosynthetic capability. For example, a non-naturally occurringmicrobial organism having 1,3-butanediol biosynthetic pathway cancomprise at least two exogenous nucleic acids encoding desired enzymesor proteins. Thus, it is understood that any combination of two or moreenzymes or proteins of a biosynthetic pathway can be included in anon-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention. Similarly,it is understood that any combination of three or more enzymes orproteins of a biosynthetic pathway can be included in a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism of the invention and so forth, as desired,so long as the combination of enzymes and/or proteins of the desiredbiosynthetic pathway results in production of the corresponding desiredproduct. Similarly, any combination of four, or more enzymes or proteinsof a biosynthetic pathway as disclosed herein can be included in anon-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention, as desired,so long as the combination of enzymes and/or proteins of the desiredbiosynthetic pathway results in production of the corresponding desiredproduct.

In addition to the biosynthesis of 1,3-butanediol as described herein,the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms and methods of theinvention also can be utilized in various combinations with each otherand with other microbial organisms and methods well known in the art toachieve product biosynthesis by other routes. For example, onealternative to produce 1,3-butanediol other than use of the1,3-butanediol producers is through addition of another microbialorganism capable of converting 1,3-butanediol pathway intermediate to1,3-butanediol. One such procedure includes, for example, thefermentation of a microbial organism that produces 1,3-butanediolpathway intermediate. The 1,3-butanediol pathway intermediate can thenbe used as a substrate for a second microbial organism that converts the1,3-butanediol pathway intermediate to 1,3-butanediol. The1,3-butanediol pathway intermediate can be added directly to anotherculture of the second organism or the original culture of the1,3-butanediol pathway intermediate producers can be depleted of thesemicrobial organisms by, for example, cell separation, and thensubsequent addition of the second organism to the fermentation broth canbe utilized to produce the final product without intermediatepurification steps.

In other embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organismsand methods of the invention can be assembled in a wide variety ofsubpathways to achieve biosynthesis of, for example, 1,3-butanediol. Inthese embodiments, biosynthetic pathways for a desired product of theinvention can be segregated into different microbial organisms, and thedifferent microbial organisms can be co-cultured to produce the finalproduct. In such a biosynthetic scheme, the product of one microbialorganism is the substrate for a second microbial organism until thefinal product is synthesized. For example, the biosynthesis of1,3-butanediol can be accomplished by constructing a microbial organismthat contains biosynthetic pathways for conversion of one pathwayintermediate to another pathway intermediate or the product.Alternatively, 1,3-butanediol also can be biosynthetically produced frommicrobial organisms through co-culture or co-fermentation using twoorganisms in the same vessel, where the first microbial organismproduces 1,3-butanediol intermediate and the second microbial organismconverts the intermediate to 1,3-butanediol.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in theart will understand that a wide variety of combinations and permutationsexist for the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms and methods ofthe invention together with other microbial organisms, with theco-culture of other non-naturally occurring microbial organisms havingsubpathways and with combinations of other chemical and/or biochemicalprocedures well known in the art to produce 1,3-butanediol.

Sources of encoding nucleic acids for 1,3-butanediol pathway enzyme orprotein can include, for example, any species where the encoded geneproduct is capable of catalyzing the referenced reaction. Such speciesinclude both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms including, but notlimited to, bacteria, including archaea and eubacteria, and eukaryotes,including yeast, plant, insect, animal, and mammal, including human.Exemplary species for such sources include, for example, Escherichiacoli, as well as other exemplary species disclosed herein or availableas source organisms for corresponding genes. However, with the completegenome sequence available for now more than 550 species (with more thanhalf of these available on public databases such as the NCBI), including395 microorganism genomes and a variety of yeast, fungi, plant, andmammalian genomes, the identification of genes encoding the requisite1,3-butanediol biosynthetic activity for one or more genes in related ordistant species, including for example, homologues, orthologs, paralogsand nonorthologous gene displacements of known genes, and theinterchange of genetic alterations between organisms is routine and wellknown in the art. Accordingly, the metabolic alterations enablingbiosynthesis of 1,3-butanediol described herein with reference to aparticular organism such as E. coli can be readily applied to othermicroorganisms, including prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms alike.Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in theart will know that a metabolic alteration exemplified in one organismcan be applied equally to other organisms.

In some instances, such as when an alternative 1,3-butanediolbiosynthetic pathway exists in an unrelated species, 1,3-butanediolbiosynthesis can be conferred onto the host species by, for example,exogenous expression of a paralog or paralogs from the unrelated speciesthat catalyzes a similar, yet non-identical metabolic reaction toreplace the referenced reaction. Because certain differences amongmetabolic networks exist between different organisms, those skilled inthe art will understand that the actual gene usage between differentorganisms can differ. However, given the teachings and guidance providedherein, those skilled in the art also will understand that the teachingsand methods of the invention can be applied to all microbial organismsusing the cognate metabolic alterations to those exemplified herein toconstruct a microbial organism in a species of interest that willsynthesize 1,3-butanediol.

Host microbial organisms can be selected from, and the non-naturallyoccurring microbial organisms generated in, for example, bacteria,yeast, fungus or any of a variety of other microorganisms applicable tofermentation processes. Exemplary bacteria include species selected fromEscherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, Anaerobiospirillumsucciniciproducens, Actinobacillus succinogenes, Mannheimiasucciniciproducens, Rhizobium etli, Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacteriumglutamicum, Gluconobacter oxydans, Zymomonas mobilis, Lactococcuslactis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Streptomyces coelicolor, Clostridiumacetobutylicum, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Pseudomonas putida.Exemplary yeasts or fungi include species selected from Saccharomycescerevisiae, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Kluyveromyces lactis,Kluyveromyces marxianus, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus niger andPichia pastoris. E. coli is a particularly useful host organism since itis a well characterized microbial organism suitable for geneticengineering. Other particularly useful host organisms include yeast suchas Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Methods for constructing and testing the expression levels of anon-naturally occurring 1,3-butanediol-producing host can be performed,for example, by recombinant and detection methods well known in the art.Such methods can be found described in, for example, Sambrook et al.,Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Third Ed., Cold Spring HarborLaboratory, New York (2001); and Ausubel et al., Current Protocols inMolecular Biology, John Wiley and Sons, Baltimore, Md. (1999).

Exogenous nucleic acid sequences involved in a pathway for production of1,3-butanediol can be introduced stably or transiently into a host cellusing techniques well known in the art including, but not limited to,conjugation, electroporation, chemical transformation, transduction,transfection, and ultrasound transformation. For exogenous expression inE. coli or other prokaryotic cells, some nucleic acid sequences in thegenes or cDNAs of eukaryotic nucleic acids can encode targeting signalssuch as an N-terminal mitochondrial or other targeting signal, which canbe removed before transformation into prokaryotic host cells, ifdesired. For example, removal of a mitochondrial leader sequence led toincreased expression in E. coli (Hoffmeister et al., J. Biol. Chem.280:4329-4338 (2005)). For exogenous expression in yeast or othereukaryotic cells, genes can be expressed in the cytosol without theaddition of leader sequence, or can be targeted to mitochondrion orother organelles, or targeted for secretion, by the addition of asuitable targeting sequence such as a mitochondrial targeting orsecretion signal suitable for the host cells. Thus, it is understoodthat appropriate modifications to a nucleic acid sequence to remove orinclude a targeting sequence can be incorporated into an exogenousnucleic acid sequence to impart desirable properties. Furthermore, genescan be subjected to codon optimization with techniques well known in theart to achieve optimized expression of the proteins.

An expression vector or vectors can be constructed to include one ormore 1,3-butanediol biosynthetic pathway encoding nucleic acids asexemplified herein operably linked to expression control sequencesfunctional in the host organism. Expression vectors applicable for usein the microbial host organisms of the invention include, for example,plasmids, phage vectors, viral vectors, episomes and artificialchromosomes, including vectors and selection sequences or markersoperable for stable integration into a host chromosome. Additionally,the expression vectors can include one or more selectable marker genesand appropriate expression control sequences. Selectable marker genesalso can be included that, for example, provide resistance toantibiotics or toxins, complement auxotrophic deficiencies, or supplycritical nutrients not in the culture media. Expression controlsequences can include constitutive and inducible promoters,transcription enhancers, transcription terminators, and the like whichare well known in the art. When two or more exogenous encoding nucleicacids are to be co-expressed, both nucleic acids can be inserted, forexample, into a single expression vector or in separate expressionvectors. For single vector expression, the encoding nucleic acids can beoperationally linked to one common expression control sequence or linkedto different expression control sequences, such as one induciblepromoter and one constitutive promoter. The transformation of exogenousnucleic acid sequences involved in a metabolic or synthetic pathway canbe confirmed using methods well known in the art. Such methods include,for example, nucleic acid analysis such as Northern blots or polymerasechain reaction (PCR) amplification of mRNA, or immunoblotting forexpression of gene products, or other suitable analytical methods totest the expression of an introduced nucleic acid sequence or itscorresponding gene product. It is understood by those skilled in the artthat the exogenous nucleic acid is expressed in a sufficient amount toproduce the desired product, and it is further understood thatexpression levels can be optimized to obtain sufficient expression usingmethods well known in the art and as disclosed herein.

The invention provides a method for producing 1,3-BDO that includesculturing the non-naturally occurring microbial organism disclosedherein, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce1,3-BDO, including organisms that incorporate one, two, three, four,five, up to all exogenous nucleic acids encoding enzymes that complete a1,3-BDO pathway. The 1,3-BDO pathways include a set of 1,3-BDO pathwayenzymes, where the set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes are identified asabove, namely: (a) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) anAKP dehydrogenase; (3) a 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate aminotransferase oroxidoreductase (deaminating); (4) a 2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoatedecarboxylase; and (5) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (b) (1) a2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP aminotransferase oroxidoreductase (deaminating); (3) a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase;(4) a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (c) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP aminotransferase or oxidoreductase(deaminating); (3) a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase; (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and (5) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (d) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP)thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneaminotransferase or oxidoreductase (deaminating); (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (e) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneaminotransferase or oxidoreductase (deaminating); (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and (5) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (f) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP)thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneammonia-lyase; (4) a butanone hydratase; and (5) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanonereductase; (g) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKPammonia-lyase; (3) an acetylacrylate decarboxylase; (4) a butanonehydratase; and (5) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (h) (1) anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming); (2) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (3) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (i) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase(CoA dependent, alcohol forming) and (2) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanonereductase; (j) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, aldehydeforming); (2) a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and(3) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (k) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoAreductase (ketone reducing) and (2) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase(alcohol forming); (l) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketonereducing); (2) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and(3) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (m) (1) a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoAdehydratase; (2) a crotonase; and (3) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase(alcohol forming); and (n) (1) a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; (2) acrotonase; (3) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and(4) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase.

Suitable purification and/or assays to test for the production of1,3-butanediol can be performed using well known methods. Suitablereplicates such as triplicate cultures can be grown for each engineeredstrain to be tested. For example, product and byproduct formation in theengineered production host can be monitored. The final product andintermediates, and other organic compounds, can be analyzed by methodssuch as HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography), GC-MS (GasChromatography-Mass Spectroscopy) and LC-MS (Liquid Chromatography-MassSpectroscopy) or other suitable analytical methods using routineprocedures well known in the art. The release of product in thefermentation broth can also be tested with the culture supernatant.Byproducts and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC using, forexample, a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UVdetector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 90:775-779(2005)), or other suitable assay and detection methods well known in theart. The individual enzyme or protein activities from the exogenous DNAsequences can also be assayed using methods well known in the art (see,for example, WO/2008/115840 and Hanai et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol.73:7814-7818 (2007)).

The 1,3-butanediol can be separated from other components in the cultureusing a variety of methods well known in the art. Such separationmethods include, for example, extraction procedures as well as methodsthat include continuous liquid-liquid extraction, pervaporation,membrane filtration, membrane separation, reverse osmosis,electrodialysis, distillation, crystallization, centrifugation,extractive filtration, ion exchange chromatography, size exclusionchromatography, adsorption chromatography, and ultrafiltration. All ofthe above methods are well known in the art.

Any of the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms described hereincan be cultured to produce and/or secrete the biosynthetic products ofthe invention. For example, the 1,3-butanediol producers can be culturedfor the biosynthetic production of 1,3-butanediol.

For the production of 1,3-butanediol, the recombinant strains arecultured in a medium with carbon source and other essential nutrients.It is highly desirable to maintain anaerobic conditions in the fermenterto reduce the cost of the overall process. Such conditions can beobtained, for example, by first sparging the medium with nitrogen andthen sealing the flasks with a septum and crimp-cap. For strains wheregrowth is not observed anaerobically, microaerobic conditions can beapplied by perforating the septum with a small hole for limitedaeration. Exemplary anaerobic conditions have been described previouslyand are well-known in the art. Exemplary aerobic and anaerobicconditions are described, for example, in United States Publication No.US-2009-0047719, filed Aug. 10, 2007. Fermentations can be performed ina batch, fed-batch or continuous manner, as disclosed herein.

If desired, the pH of the medium can be maintained at a desired pH, inparticular neutral pH, such as a pH of around 7 by addition of a base,such as NaOH or other bases, or acid, as needed to maintain the culturemedium at a desirable pH. The growth rate can be determined by measuringoptical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm), and the glucoseuptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time.

In addition to renewable feedstocks such as those exemplified above, the1,3-butanediol microbial organisms of the invention also can be modifiedfor growth on syngas as its source of carbon. In this specificembodiment, one or more proteins or enzymes are expressed in the1,3-butanediol producing organisms to provide a metabolic pathway forutilization of syngas or other gaseous carbon source.

Organisms of the present invention can utilize, for example, anycarbohydrate source which can supply a source of carbon to thenon-naturally occurring microorganism. Such sources include, forexample, sugars such as glucose, xylose, arabinose, galactose, mannose,fructose and starch. Other sources of carbohydrate include, for example,renewable feedstocks and biomass. Exemplary types of biomasses that canbe used as feedstocks in the methods of the invention include cellulosicbiomass, hemicellulosic biomass and lignin feedstocks or portions offeedstocks. Such biomass feedstocks contain, for example, carbohydratesubstrates useful as carbon sources such as glucose, xylose, arabinose,galactose, mannose, fructose and starch. Given the teachings andguidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand thatrenewable feedstocks and biomass other than those exemplified above alsocan be used for culturing the microbial organisms of the invention forthe production of 1,3-butanediol.

Accordingly, given the teachings and guidance provided herein, thoseskilled in the art will understand that a non-naturally occurringmicrobial organism can be produced that secretes the biosynthesizedcompounds of the invention when grown on a carbon source such as,syngas, CO and/or CO2. Such compounds include, for example,1,3-butanediol and any of the intermediate metabolites in the1,3-butanediol pathway. All that is required is to engineer in one ormore of the required enzyme or protein activities to achievebiosynthesis of the desired compound or intermediate including, forexample, inclusion of some or all of the 1,3-butanediol biosyntheticpathways. Accordingly, the invention provides a non-naturally occurringmicrobial organism that produces and/or secretes 1,3-butanediol whengrown on a carbohydrate or other carbon source and produces and/orsecretes any of the intermediate metabolites shown in the 1,3-butanediolpathway when grown on a carbohydrate or other carbon source. The1,3-butanediol producing microbial organisms of the invention caninitiate synthesis from an intermediate, for example, acetyl-CoA.

The non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention areconstructed using methods well known in the art as exemplified herein toexogenously express at least one nucleic acid encoding an 1,3-butanediolpathway enzyme or protein in sufficient amounts to produce1,3-butanediol. It is understood that the microbial organisms of theinvention are cultured under conditions sufficient to produce1,3-butanediol. Following the teachings and guidance provided herein,the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention canachieve biosynthesis of 1,3-butanediol resulting in intracellularconcentrations between about 0.1-2000 mM or more. Generally, theintracellular concentration of 1,3-butanediol is between about 3-1800mM, particularly between about 5-1700 mM and more particularly betweenabout 8-1600 mM, including about 100 mM, 200 mM, 500 mM, 800 mM, ormore. Intracellular concentrations between and above each of theseexemplary ranges also can be achieved from the non-naturally occurringmicrobial organisms of the invention.

In some embodiments, culture conditions include anaerobic orsubstantially anaerobic growth or maintenance conditions. Exemplaryanaerobic conditions have been described previously and are well knownin the art. Exemplary anaerobic conditions for fermentation processesare described herein and are described, for example, in U.S. patentapplication No. US 2009/0047719, filed Aug. 10, 2007. Any of theseconditions can be employed with the non-naturally occurring microbialorganisms as well as other anaerobic conditions well known in the art.Under such anaerobic conditions, the 1,3-butanediol producers cansynthesize 1,3-butanediol at intracellular concentrations of 5-10 mM ormore as well as all other concentrations exemplified herein. It isunderstood that, even though the above description refers tointracellular concentrations, 1,3-butanediol producing microbialorganisms can produce 1,3-butanediol intracellularly and/or secrete theproduct into the culture medium.

The culture conditions can include, for example, liquid cultureprocedures as well as fermentation and other large scale cultureprocedures. As described herein, particularly useful yields of thebiosynthetic products of the invention can be obtained under anaerobicor substantially anaerobic culture conditions.

As described herein, one exemplary growth condition for achievingbiosynthesis of 1,3-butanediol includes anaerobic culture orfermentation conditions. In certain embodiments, the non-naturallyoccurring microbial organisms of the invention can be sustained,cultured or fermented under anaerobic or substantially anaerobicconditions. Briefly, anaerobic conditions refer to an environment devoidof oxygen. Substantially anaerobic conditions include, for example, aculture, batch fermentation or continuous fermentation such that thedissolved oxygen concentration in the medium remains between 0 and 10%of saturation. Substantially anaerobic conditions also includes growingor resting cells in liquid medium or on solid agar inside a sealedchamber maintained with an atmosphere of less than 1% oxygen. Thepercent of oxygen can be maintained by, for example, sparging theculture with an N₂/CO₂ mixture or other suitable non-oxygen gas orgases.

The culture conditions described herein can be scaled up and growncontinuously for manufacturing of 1,3-butanediol. Exemplary growthprocedures include, for example, fed-batch fermentation and batchseparation; fed-batch fermentation and continuous separation, orcontinuous fermentation and continuous separation. All of theseprocesses are well known in the art. Fermentation procedures areparticularly useful for the biosynthetic production of commercialquantities of 1,3-butanediol. Generally, and as with non-continuousculture procedures, the continuous and/or near-continuous production of1,3-butanediol will include culturing a non-naturally occurring1,3-butanediol producing organism of the invention in sufficientnutrients and medium to sustain and/or nearly sustain growth in anexponential phase. Continuous culture under such conditions can beinclude, for example, 1 day, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7 days or more.Additionally, continuous culture can include 1 week, 2, 3, 4 or 5 ormore weeks and up to several months. Alternatively, organisms of theinvention can be cultured for hours, if suitable for a particularapplication. It is to be understood that the continuous and/ornear-continuous culture conditions also can include all time intervalsin between these exemplary periods. It is further understood that thetime of culturing the microbial organism of the invention is for asufficient period of time to produce a sufficient amount of product fora desired purpose.

Fermentation procedures are well known in the art. Briefly, fermentationfor the biosynthetic production of 1,3-butanediol can be utilized in,for example, fed-batch fermentation and batch separation; fed-batchfermentation and continuous separation, or continuous fermentation andcontinuous separation. Examples of batch and continuous fermentationprocedures are well known in the art.

In addition to the above fermentation procedures using the1,3-butanediol producers of the invention for continuous production ofsubstantial quantities of 1,3-butanediol, the 1,3-butanediol producersalso can be, for example, simultaneously subjected to chemical synthesisprocedures to convert the product to other compounds or the product canbe separated from the fermentation culture and sequentially subjected tochemical conversion to convert the product to other compounds, ifdesired.

In some embodiments, syngas can be used as a carbon feedstock. Importantprocess considerations for a syngas fermentation are high biomassconcentration and good gas-liquid mass transfer (Bredwell et al.,Biotechnol Prog., 15:834-844 (1999). The solubility of CO in water issomewhat less than that of oxygen. Continuously gas-spargedfermentations can be performed in controlled fermenters with constantoff-gas analysis by mass spectrometry and periodic liquid sampling andanalysis by GC and HPLC. The liquid phase can function in batch mode.Fermentation products such as alcohols, organic acids, and residualglucose along with residual methanol are quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu,Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (forexample, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractiveindex detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organicacids. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density usinga spectrophotometer (600 nm). All piping in these systems is glass ormetal to maintain anaerobic conditions. The gas sparging is performedwith glass frits to decrease bubble size and improve mass transfer.Various sparging rates are tested, ranging from about 0.1 to 1 vvm(vapor volumes per minute). To obtain accurate measurements of gasuptake rates, periodic challenges are performed in which the gas flow istemporarily stopped, and the gas phase composition is monitored as afunction of time.

In order to achieve the overall target productivity, methods of cellretention or recycle are employed. One method to increase the microbialconcentration is to recycle cells via a tangential flow membrane from asidestream. Repeated batch culture can also be used, as previouslydescribed for production of acetate by Moorella (Sakai et al., J Biosci.Bioeng, 99:252-258 (2005)). Various other methods can also be used(Bredwell et al., Biotechnol Prog., 15:834-844 (1999); Datar et al.,Biotechnol Bioeng, 86:587-594 (2004)). Additional optimization can betested such as overpressure at 1.5 atm to improve mass transfer(Najafpour et al., Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 38[1-2], 223-228(2006)).

Once satisfactory performance is achieved using pure H₂/CO as the feed,synthetic gas mixtures are generated containing inhibitors likely to bepresent in commercial syngas. For example, a typical impurity profile is4.5% CH₄, 0.1% C₂H₂, 0.35% C₂H₆, 1.4% C₂H₄, and 150 ppm nitric oxide(Datar et al., Biotechnol Bioeng, 86:587-594 (2004)). Tars, representedby compounds such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, p-xylene, o-xylene,and naphthalene, are added at ppm levels to test for any effect onproduction. For example, it has been shown that 40 ppm NO is inhibitoryto C. carboxidivorans (Ahmed et al., Biotechnol Bioeng, 97:1080-1086(2007)). Cultures are tested in shake-flask cultures before moving to afermentor. Also, different levels of these potential inhibitorycompounds are tested to quantify the effect they have on cell growth.This knowledge is used to develop specifications for syngas purity,which is utilized for scale up studies and production. If any particularcomponent is found to be difficult to decrease or remove from syngasused for scale up, an adaptive evolution procedure is utilized to adaptcells to tolerate one or more impurities.

Advances in the field of protein engineering make it feasible to alterany of the enzymes disclosed herein to act efficiently on substrates notknown to be natural to them. Below are several examples ofbroad-specificity enzymes from diverse classes of interest and andmethods that have been used for evolving such enzymes to act onnon-natural substrates.

One class of enzymes in the pathways disclosed herein is theoxidoreductases that interconvert ketones or aldehydes to alcohols(1.1.1). Enzymes in this class that can operate on a wide range ofsubstrates. An alcohol dehydrogenase (1.1.1.1) purified from the soilbacterium Brevibacterium sp KU 1309 (Hirano et al., J. Biosci. Bioeng.100:318-322 (2005)) was shown to operate on a plethora of aliphatic aswell as aromatic alcohols with high activities. Table 33 shows theactivity of the enzyme and its K_(m) on different alcohols. The enzymeis reversible and has very high activity on several aldehydes also asshown in Table 34.

TABLE 33 RELATIVE K_(M) SUBSTRATE ACTIVITY (%) (MM) 2-Phenylethanol 1000.025 (S)-2-Phenylpropanol 156 0.157 (R)-2-Phenylpropanol 63 0.020Benzyl alcohol 199 0.012 3-Phenylpropanol 135 0.033 Ethanol 76 1-Butanol111 1-Octanol 101 1-Dodecanol 68 1-Phenylethanol 46 2-Propanol 54

In this Table, the activity of 2-phenylethanol, corresponding to 19.2U/mg, was taken as 100%.

TABLE 34 RELATIVE κ_(M) SUBSTRATE ACTIVITY (%) (MM) Phenylacetaldehyde100 0.261 2-Phenylpropionaldehyde 188 0.864 1-Octylaldehyde 87Acetophenone 0

Lactate dehydrogenase (1.1.1.27) from Ralstonia eutropha is anotherenzyme that has been demonstrated to have high activities on several2-oxoacids such as 2-oxobutyrate, 2-oxopentanoate and 2-oxoglutarate (aC5 compound analogous to 2-oxoadipate) (Steinbuchel et al., supra).Column 2 in Table 35 demonstrates the activities of ldhA from R.eutropha (formerly A. eutrophus) on different substrates (Steinbuchel etal., supra).

TABLE 35 Activity of L(+)- lactate dehydro- L(+)- D(−)- genase fromlactate dehydro- lactate dehydro- A. eustrophus genase from genase fromSubstrate % rabbit muscle L. leischmanii Glyoxylate 8.7 23.9 5.0Pyruvate 100.0 100.0 100.0 2-Oxobutyrate 107.0 18.6 1.1 2-Oxovalerate125.0 0.7 0.0 3-Methyl-2- 28.5 0.0 0.0 oxobutyrate 3-Methyl-2- 5.3 0.00.0 oxovalerate 4-Methyl-2- 39.0 1.4 1.1 oxopentanoate Oxaloacetate 0.033.1 23.1 2-Oxoglutarate 79.6 0.0 0.0 3- 33.6 74.3 40.0 Fluoropyruvate

Oxidoreductases that can convert 2-oxoacids to their acyl-CoAcounterparts (1.2.1) have been shown to accept multiple substrates aswell. For example, branched-chain 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex(BCKAD), also known as 2-oxoisovalerate dehydrogenase (1.2.1.25),participates in branched-chain amino acid degradation pathways,converting 2-keto acids derivatives of valine, leucine and isoleucine totheir acyl-CoA derivatives and CO₂. In some organisms including Rattusnorvegicus (Paxton et al., Biochem. J. 234:295-303 (1986)) andSaccharomyces cerevisiae (Sinclair et al., Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int.31:911-922 (1993)), this complex has been shown to have a broadsubstrate range that includes linear oxo-acids such as 2-oxobutanoateand alpha-ketoglutarate, in addition to the branched-chain amino acidprecursors.

Members of yet another class of enzymes, namely aminotransferases(2.6.1), have been reported to act on multiple substrates. Aspartateaminotransferase (aspAT) from Pyrococcus fursious has been identified,expressed in E. coli and the recombinant protein characterized todemonstrate that the enzyme has the highest activities towards aspartateand alpha-ketoglutarate but lower, yet significant activities towardsalanine, glutamate and the aromatic amino acids (Ward et al., Archaea.1:133-141 (2002)). In another instance, an aminotransferase identifiedfrom Leishmania mexicana and expressed in E. coli Vernal et al., FEMSMicrobiol. Lett. 229:217-222 (2003)) was reported to have a broadsubstrate specificity towards tyrosine (activity considered 100% ontyrosine), phenylalanine (90%), tryptophan (85%), aspartate (30%),leucine (25%) and methionine (25%) respectively (Vernal et al., Mol.Biochem. Parasitol. 96:83-92 (1998)). Similar broad specificity has beenreported for a tyrosine aminotransferase from Trypanosoma cruzi, eventhough both of these enzymes have a sequence homology of only 6%. Notethat the latter enzyme can accept leucine, methionine as well astyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan and alanine as efficient aminodonors (Nowicki et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1546: 268-281 (2001)).

In contrast to these examples where the enzymes naturally have broadsubstrate specificities, numerous enzymes have been modified usingdirected evolution to broaden their specificity towards theirnon-natural substrates. Alternatively, the substrate preference of anenzyme has also been changed using directed evolution. For example, ithas been reported that the enantioselectivity of a lipase fromPseudomonas aeruginosa was improved significantly. This enzymehydrolyzed p-nitrophenyl 2-methyldecanoate with only 2% enantiomericexcess (ee) in favor of the (S)-acid. However, after four successiverounds of error-prone mutagenesis and screening, a variant was producedthat catalyzed the requisite reaction with 81% ee Reetz et al., Angew.Chem. Int. Ed Engl. 36:2830-2832 (1997)).

Directed evolution methods have made possible the modification of anenzyme to function on an array of unnatural substrates. The substratespecificity of the lipase in P. aeruginosa was broadened byrandomization of amino acid residues near the active site. This allowedfor the acceptance of alpha-substituted carboxylic acid esters by thisenzyme Reetz et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed Engl. 44:4192-4196 (2005)). Inanother successful attempt, DNA shuffling was employed to create anEscherichia coli aminotransferase that accepted β-branched substrates,which were poorly accepted by the wild-type enzyme (Yano et al., Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 95:5511-5515 (1998)). Specifically, at the end offour rounds of shuffling, the activity of aspartate aminotransferase forvaline and 2-oxovaline increased by up to five orders of magnitude,while decreasing the activity towards the natural substrate, aspartate,by up to 30-fold. Recently, an algorithm was used to design aretro-aldolase that could be used to catalyze the carbon-carbon bondcleavage in a non-natural and non-biological substrate,4-hydroxy-4-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-2-butanone. These algorithms useddifferent combinations of four different catalytic motifs to design newenzymes and 20 of the selected designs for experimental characterizationhad four-fold improved rates over the uncatalyzed reaction (Jiang etal., Science 319:1387-1391 (2008)). Thus, not only are these engineeringapproaches capable of expanding the array of substrates on which anenzyme can act, but allow the design and construction of very efficientenzymes. For example, a method of DNA shuffling (random chimeragenesison transient templates or RACHITT) was reported to lead to an engineeredmonooxygenase that had an improved rate of desulfurization on complexsubstrates as well as 20-fold faster conversion of a non-naturalsubstrate (Coco et al. Nat. Biotechnol. 19:354-359 (2001)). Similarly,the specific activity of a sluggish mutant triosephosphate isomeraseenzyme was improved up to 19-fold from 1.3 fold (Hermes et al., Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 87:696-700 (1990)). This enhancement in specificactivity was accomplished by using random mutagenesis over the wholelength of the protein and the improvement could be traced back tomutations in six amino acid residues.

The effectiveness of protein engineering approaches to alter thesubstrate specificity of an enzyme for a desired substrate has also beendemonstrated. Isopropylmalate dehydrogenase from Thermus thermophiluswas modified by changing residues close to the active site so that itcould now act on malate and D-lactate as substrates (Fujita et al.,Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem. 65:2695-2700 (2001)). In this study as wellas in others, it was pointed out that one or a few residues could bemodified to alter the substrate specificity. A case in point is thedihydroflavonol 4-reductase for which a single amino acid was changed inthe presumed substrate-binding region that could preferentially reducedihydrokaempferol Johnson et al., Plant J. 25:325-333 (2001)). Thesubstrate specificity of a very specific isocitrate dehydrogenase fromEscherichia coli was changed form isocitrate to isopropylmalate bychanging one residue in the active site (Doyle et al., Biochemistry40:4234-4241 (2001)). In a similar vein, the cofactor specificity of aNAD⁺-dependent 1,5-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase was altered toNADP⁺ by changing a few residues near the N-terminal end Cho et al.,Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 419:139-146 (2003)). Sequence analysis andmolecular modeling analysis were used to identify the key residues formodification, which were further studied by site-directed mutagenesis.

A fucosidase was evolved from a galactosidase in E. coli by DNAshuffling and screening (Zhang et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci US.A94:4504-4509 (1997)). Similarly, aspartate aminotransferase from E. coliwas converted into a tyrosine aminotransferase using homology modelingand site-directed mutagenesis (Onuffer et al., Protein Sci. 4:1750-1757(1995)). Site-directed mutagenesis of two residues in the active site ofbenzoylformate decarboxylase from P. putida reportedly altered theaffinity (K_(m)) towards natural and non-natural substrates Siegert etal., Protein Eng Des Sel 18:345-357 (2005)). Cytochrome c peroxidase(CCP) from Saccharomyces cerevisiae was subjected to directed molecularevolution to generate mutants with increased activity against theclassical peroxidase substrate guaiacol, thus changing the substratespecificity of CCP from the protein cytochrome c to a small organicmolecule. After three rounds of DNA shuffling and screening, mutantswere isolated which possessed a 300-fold increased activity againstguaiacol and up to 1000-fold increased specificity for this substraterelative to that for the natural substrate (Iffland et al., Biochemistry39:10790-10798 (2000)).

In some cases, enzymes with different substrate preferences than boththe parent enzymes have been obtained. For example,biphenyl-dioxygenase-mediated degradation of polychlorinated biphenylswas improved by shuffling genes from two bacteria, Pseudomonaspseudoalcaligens and Burkholderia cepacia (Kumamaru et al., Nat.Biotechnol 16, 663-666 (1998)). The resulting chimeric biphenyloxygenases showed different substrate preferences than both the parentalenzymes and enhanced the degradation activity towards related biphenylcompounds and single aromatic ring hydrocarbons such as toluene andbenzene which were originally poor substrates for the enzyme.

It is not only possible to change the enzyme specificity but also toenhance the activities on those substrates on which the enzymesnaturally have low activities. One study demonstrated that amino acidracemase from P. putida that had broad substrate specificity (on lysine,arginine, alanine, serine, methionine, cysteine, leucine and histidineamong others) but low activity towards tryptophan could be improvedsignificantly by random mutagenesis Kino et al., Appl. Microbiol.Biotechnol. 73:1299-1305 (2007)). Similarly, the active site of thebovine BCKAD was engineered to favor alternate substrate acetyl-CoA(Meng et al. Biochemistry 33:12879-12885 (1994)). An interesting aspectof these approaches is that even when random methods have been appliedto generate these mutated enzymes with efficacious activities, the exactmutations or structural changes that confer the improvement in activitycan be identified. For example, in the aforementioned study, themutations that facilitated improved activity on tryptophan could betraced back to two different positions.

Directed evolution has also been used to express proteins that aredifficult to express. For example, by subjecting the horseradishperoxidase to random mutagenesis and gene recombination, mutants couldbe extracted that had more than 14-fold activity than the wild type (Linet al., Biotechnol. Prog. 15:467-471 (1999)).

A final example of directed evolution shows the extensive modificationsto which an enzyme can be subjected to achieve a range of desiredfunctions. The enzyme, lactate dehydrogenase from Bacillusstearothermophilus was subjected to site-directed mutagenesis, and threeamino acid substitutions were made at sites that were indicated todetermine the specificity towards different hydroxyacids (Clarke et al.,Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 148:15-23 (1987)). After these mutations,the specificity for oxaloacetate over pyruvate was increased to 500 incontrast to the wild type enzyme that had a catalytic specificity forpyruvate over oxaloacetate of 1000. This enzyme was further engineeredusing site-directed mutagenesis to have activity towards branched-chainsubstituted pyruvates (Wilks et al., Biochemistry 29:8587-8591 (1990)).Specifically, the enzyme had a 55-fold improvement in K_(cat) foralpha-ketoisocaproate. Three structural modifications were made in thesame enzyme to change its substrate specificity from lactate to malate.The enzyme was highly active and specific towards malate (Wilks et al.,Science 242:1541-1544 (1988)). The same enzyme from B.stearothermophilus was subsequently engineered to have high catalyticactivity towards alpha-keto acids with positively charged side chains,such as those containing ammonium groups (Hogan et al., Biochemistry34:4225-4230 (1995)). Mutants with acidic amino acids introduced atposition 102 of the enzyme favored binding of such side chain ammoniumgroups. The results obtained proved that the mutants showed up to25-fold improvements in k_(cat)/K_(m) values for omega-amino-alpha-ketoacid substrates. This enzyme was also structurally modified to functionas a phenyllactate dehydrogenase instead of a lactate dehydrogenase(Wilks et al., Biochemistry 31:7802-7806 (1992)). Restriction sites wereintroduced into the gene for the enzyme which allowed a region of thegene to be excised. This region coded for a mobile surface loop ofpolypeptide (residues 98-110) which normally seals the active sitevacuole from bulk solvent and is a major determinant of substratespecificity. The variable length and sequence loops were inserted intothe cut gene and used to synthesize hydroxyacid dehydrogenases withaltered substrate specificities. With one longer loop construction,activity with pyruvate was reduced one-million-fold but activity withphenylpyruvate was largely unaltered. A switch in specificity(k_(cat)/K_(m)) of 390,000-fold was achieved. The 1700:1 selectivity ofthis enzyme for phenylpyruvate over pyruvate is that required in aphenyllactate dehydrogenase.

As indicated above, directed evolution is a powerful approach thatinvolves the introduction of mutations targeted to a specific gene inorder to improve and/or alter the properties of an enzyme. Improvedand/or altered enzymes can be identified through the development andimplementation of sensitive high-throughput screening assays that allowthe automated screening of many enzyme variants (e.g., >10⁴). Iterativerounds of mutagenesis and screening typically are performed to afford anenzyme with optimized properties. Computational algorithms that can helpto identify areas of the gene for mutagenesis also have been developedand can significantly reduce the number of enzyme variants that need tobe generated and screened.

Numerous directed evolution technologies have been developed (forreviews, see Hibbert, E. G., F. Baganz, H. C. Hailes, J. M. Ward, G. J.Lye, J. M. Woodley, and P. A. Dalby, 2005, Directed evolution ofbiocatalytic processes. Biomol. Eng 22:11-19; Huisman, G. W. and J. J.Lalonde, 2007, Enzyme evolution for chemical process applications, p.717-742. In R. N. Patel (ed.), Biocatalysis in the pharmaceutical andbiotechnology industries. CRC Press; Otten, L. G. and W. J. Quax. 2005.Directed evolution: selecting today's biocatalysts. Biomol. Eng 22:1-9;and Sen, S., D. Venkata, V, and B. Mandal, 2007, Developments indirected evolution for improving enzyme functions. Appl Biochem.Biotechnol 143:212-223.) to be effective at creating diverse variantlibraries and these methods have been successfully applied to theimprovement of a wide range of properties across many enzyme classes.

Enzyme characteristics that have been improved and/or altered bydirected evolution technologies include, for example,selectivity/specificity—for conversion of non-natural substrates;temperature stability—for robust high temperature processing; pHstability—for bioprocessing under lower or higher pH conditions;substrate or product tolerance—so that high product titers can beachieved; binding (K_(m))—broadens substrate binding to includenon-natural substrates; inhibition (K_(i))—to remove inhibition byproducts, substrates, or key intermediates; activity (kcat)—increasesenzymatic reaction rates to achieve desired flux; expressionlevels—increases protein yields and overall pathway flux; oxygenstability—for operation of air sensitive enzymes under aerobicconditions; and anaerobic activity—for operation of an aerobic enzyme inthe absence of oxygen.

The following exemplary methods have been developed for the mutagenesisand diversification of genes to target desired properties of specificenzymes. Any of these can be used to alter/optimize activity of adecarboxylase enzyme.

EpPCR (Pritchard, L., D. Come, D. Kell, J. Rowland, and M. Winson, 2005,A general model of error-prone PCR. J Theor. Biol 234:497-509.)introduces random point mutations by reducing the fidelity of DNApolymerase in PCR reactions by the addition of Mn²⁺ ions, by biasingdNTP concentrations, or by other conditional variations. The five stepcloning process to confine the mutagenesis to the target gene ofinterest involves: 1) error-prone PCR amplification of the gene ofinterest; 2) restriction enzyme digestion; 3) gel purification of thedesired DNA fragment; 4) ligation into a vector; 5) transformation ofthe gene variants into a suitable host and screening of the library forimproved performance. This method can generate multiple mutations in asingle gene simultaneously, which can be useful. A high number ofmutants can be generated by EpPCR, so a high-throughput screening assayor a selection method (especially using robotics) is useful to identifythose with desirable characteristics.

Error-prone Rolling Circle Amplification (epRCA) (Fujii, R., M. Kitaoka,and K. Hayashi, 2004, One-step random mutagenesis by error-prone rollingcircle amplification. Nucleic Acids Res 32:e145; and Fujii, R., M.Kitaoka, and K. Hayashi, 2006, Error-prone rolling circle amplification:the simplest random mutagenesis protocol. Nat. Protoc. 1:2493-2497.) hasmany of the same elements as epPCR except a whole circular plasmid isused as the template and random 6-mers with exonuclease resistantthiophosphate linkages on the last 2 nucleotides are used to amplify theplasmid followed by transformation into cells in which the plasmid isre-circularized at tandem repeats. Adjusting the Mn²⁺ concentration canvary the mutation rate somewhat. This technique uses a simpleerror-prone, single-step method to create a full copy of the plasmidwith 3-4 mutations/kbp. No restriction enzyme digestion or specificprimers are required. Additionally, this method is typically availableas a kit.

DNA or Family Shuffling (Stemmer, W. P. 1994, DNA shuffling by randomfragmentation and reassembly: in vitro recombination for molecularevolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci US.A 91:10747-10751; and Stemmer, W. P.1994. Rapid evolution of a protein in vitro by DNA shuffling. Nature370:389-391.) typically involves digestion of 2 or more variant geneswith nucleases such as Dnase I or EndoV to generate a pool of randomfragments that are reassembled by cycles of annealing and extension inthe presence of DNA polymerase to create a library of chimeric genes.Fragments prime each other and recombination occurs when one copy primesanother copy (template switch). This method can be used with >1 kbp DNAsequences. In addition to mutational recombinants created by fragmentreassembly, this method introduces point mutations in the extensionsteps at a rate similar to error-prone PCR. The method can be used toremove deleterious random neutral mutations that might conferantigenicity.

Staggered Extension (StEP) (Zhao, H., L. Giver, Z. Shao, J. A.Affholter, and F. H. Arnold, 1998, Molecular evolution by staggeredextension process (StEP) in vitro recombination. Nat. Biotechnol16:258-261.) entails template priming followed by repeated cycles of 2step PCR with denaturation and very short duration ofannealing/extension (as short as 5 sec). Growing fragments anneal todifferent templates and extend further, which is repeated untilfull-length sequences are made. Template switching means most resultingfragments have multiple parents. Combinations of low-fidelitypolymerases (Taq and Mutazyme) reduce error-prone biases because ofopposite mutational spectra.

In Random Priming Recombination (RPR) random sequence primers are usedto generate many short DNA fragments complementary to different segmentsof the template. (Shao, Z., H. Zhao, L. Giver, and F. H. Arnold, 1998,Random-priming in vitro recombination: an effective tool for directedevolution. Nucleic Acids Res 26:681-683.) Base misincorporation andmispriming via epPCR give point mutations. Short DNA fragments prime oneanother based on homology and are recombined and reassembled intofull-length by repeated thermocycling. Removal of templates prior tothis step assures low parental recombinants. This method, like mostothers, can be performed over multiple iterations to evolve distinctproperties. This technology avoids sequence bias, is independent of genelength, and requires very little parent DNA for the application.

In Heteroduplex Recombination linearized plasmid DNA is used to formheteroduplexes that are repaired by mismatch repair. (Volkov, A. A., Z.Shao, and F. H. Arnold. 1999. Recombination and chimeragenesis by invitro heteroduplex formation and in vivo repair. Nucleic Acids Res27:e18; and Volkov, A. A., Z. Shao, and F. H. Arnold. 2000. Randomchimeragenesis by heteroduplex recombination. Methods Enzymol.328:456-463.) The mismatch repair step is at least somewhat mutagenic.Heteroduplexes transform more efficiently than linear homoduplexes. Thismethod is suitable for large genes and whole operons.

Random Chimeragenesis on Transient Templates (RACHITT) (Coco, W. M., W.E. Levinson, M. J. Crist, H. J. Hektor, A. Darzins, P. T. Pienkos, C. H.Squires, and D. J. Monticello, 2001, DNA shuffling method for generatinghighly recombined genes and evolved enzymes. Nat. Biotechnol19:354-359.) employs Dnase I fragmentation and size fractionation ofssDNA. Homologous fragments are hybridized in the absence of polymeraseto a complementary ssDNA scaffold. Any overlapping unhybridized fragmentends are trimmed down by an exonuclease. Gaps between fragments arefilled in, and then ligated to give a pool of full-length diversestrands hybridized to the scaffold (that contains U to precludeamplification). The scaffold then is destroyed and is replaced by a newstrand complementary to the diverse strand by PCR amplification. Themethod involves one strand (scaffold) that is from only one parent whilethe priming fragments derive from other genes; the parent scaffold isselected against. Thus, no reannealing with parental fragments occurs.Overlapping fragments are trimmed with an exonuclease. Otherwise, thisis conceptually similar to DNA shuffling and StEP. Therefore, thereshould be no siblings, few inactives, and no unshuffled parentals. Thistechnique has advantages in that few or no parental genes are createdand many more crossovers can result relative to standard DNA shuffling.

Recombined Extension on Truncated templates (RETT) entails templateswitching of unidirectionally growing strands from primers in thepresence of unidirectional ssDNA fragments used as a pool of templates.(Lee, S. H., E. J. Ryu, M. J. Kang, E.-S. Wang, Z. C. Y. Piao, K. J. J.Jung, and Y. Shin, 2003, A new approach to directed gene evolution byrecombined extension on truncated templates (RETT). J. Molec. Catalysis26:119-129.) No DNA endonucleases are used. Unidirectional ssDNA is madeby DNA polymerase with random primers or serial deletion withexonuclease. Unidirectional ssDNA are only templates and not primers.Random priming and exonucleases don't introduce sequence bias as true ofenzymatic cleavage of DNA shuffling/RACHITT. RETT can be easier tooptimize than StEP because it uses normal PCR conditions instead of veryshort extensions. Recombination occurs as a component of the PCRsteps—no direct shuffling. This method can also be more random than StEPdue to the absence of pauses.

In Degenerate Oligonucleotide Gene Shuffling (DOGS) degenerate primersare used to control recombination between molecules; (Bergquist, P. L.and M. D. Gibbs, 2007, Degenerate oligonucleotide gene shuffling.Methods Mol. Biol 352:191-204; Bergquist, P. L., R. A. Reeves, and M. D.Gibbs, 2005, Degenerate oligonucleotide gene shuffling (DOGS) and randomdrift mutagenesis (RNDM): two complementary techniques for enzymeevolution. Biomol. Eng 22:63-72; Gibbs, M. D., K. M. Nevalainen, and P.L. Bergquist, 2001, Degenerate oligonucleotide gene shuffling (DOGS): amethod for enhancing the frequency of recombination with familyshuffling. Gene 271:13-20.) this can be used to control the tendency ofother methods such as DNA shuffling to regenerate parental genes. Thismethod can be combined with random mutagenesis (epPCR) of selected genesegments. This can be a good method to block the reformation of parentalsequences. No endonucleases are needed. By adjusting inputconcentrations of segments made, one can bias towards a desiredbackbone. This method allows DNA shuffling from unrelated parentswithout restriction enzyme digests and allows a choice of randommutagenesis methods.

Incremental Truncation for the Creation of Hybrid Enzymes (ITCHY)creates a combinatorial library with 1 base pair deletions of a gene orgene fragment of interest. (Ostermeier et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci US.A.96:3562-3567 (1999); Ostermeier et al., 1999 Nat. Biotechnol.17:1205-1209 (1999)) Truncations are introduced in opposite direction onpieces of 2 different genes. These are ligated together and the fusionsare cloned. This technique does not require homology between the 2parental genes. When ITCHY is combined with DNA shuffling, the system iscalled SCRATCHY (see below). A major advantage of both is no need forhomology between parental genes; for example, functional fusions betweenan E. coli and a human gene were created via ITCHY. When ITCHY librariesare made, all possible crossovers are captured.

Thio-Incremental Truncation for the Creation of Hybrid Enzymes(THIO-ITCHY) is almost the same as ITCHY except that phosphothioatedNTPs are used to generate truncations. (Lutz, S., M. Ostermeier, and S.J. Benkovic, 2001, Rapid generation of incremental truncation librariesfor protein engineering using alpha-phosphothioate nucleotides. NucleicAcids Res 29:E16.) Relative to ITCHY, THIO-ITCHY can be easier tooptimize, provide more reproducibility, and adjustability.

SCRATCHY-ITCHY combined with DNA shuffling is a combination of DNAshuffling and ITCHY; therefore, allowing multiple crossovers. (Lutz etal., Proc Natl Acad Sci US.A. 98:11248-11253 (2001).) SCRATCHY combinesthe best features of ITCHY and DNA shuffling. Computational predictionscan be used in optimization. SCRATCHY is more effective than DNAshuffling when sequence identity is below 80%.

In Random Drift Mutagenesis (RNDM) mutations made via epPCR followed byscreening/selection for those retaining usable activity. (Bergquist etal., Biomol. Eng. 22:63-72 (2005).) Then, these are used in DOGS togenerate recombinants with fusions between multiple active mutants orbetween active mutants and some other desirable parent. Designed topromote isolation of neutral mutations; its purpose is to screen forretained catalytic activity whether or not this activity is higher orlower than in the original gene. RNDM is usable in high throughputassays when screening is capable of detecting activity above background.RNDM has been used as a front end to DOGS in generating diversity. Thetechnique imposes a requirement for activity prior to shuffling or othersubsequent steps; neutral drift libraries are indicated to result inhigher/quicker improvements in activity from smaller libraries. Thoughpublished using epPCR, this could be applied to other large-scalemutagenesis methods.

Sequence Saturation Mutagenesis (SeSaM) is a random mutagenesis methodthat: 1) generates pool of random length fragments using randomincorporation of a phosphothioate nucleotide and cleavage; this pool isused as a template to 2) extend in the presence of “universal” basessuch as inosine; 3) replication of a inosine-containing complement givesrandom base incorporation and, consequently, mutagenesis. (Wong et al.,Biotechnol J. 3:74-82 (2008); Wong Nucleic Acids Res 32:e26; Wong etal., Anal. Biochem. 341:187-189 (2005).) Using this technique it can bepossible to generate a large library of mutants within 2-3 days usingsimple methods. This is very non-directed compared to mutational bias ofDNA polymerases. Differences in this approach makes this techniquecomplementary (or alternative) to epPCR.

In Synthetic Shuffling, overlapping oligonucleotides are designed toencode “all genetic diversity in targets” and allow a very highdiversity for the shuffled progeny. (Ness, et al., Nat. Biotechnol20:1251-1255 (2002).) In this technique, one can design the fragments tobe shuffled. This aids in increasing the resulting diversity of theprogeny. One can design sequence/codon biases to make more distantlyrelated sequences recombine at rates approaching more closely relatedsequences and it doesn't require possessing the template genesphysically.

Nucleotide Exchange and Excision Technology NexT exploits a combinationof dUTP incorporation followed by treatment with uracil DNA glycosylaseand then piperidine to perform endpoint DNA fragmentation. (Muller etal., Nucleic Acids Res 33:e117 (2005)) The gene is reassembled usinginternal PCR primer extension with proofreading polymerase. The sizesfor shuffling are directly controllable using varying dUPT::dTTP ratios.This is an end point reaction using simple methods for uracilincorporation and cleavage. One can use other nucleotide analogs such as8-oxo-guanine with this method. Additionally, the technique works wellwith very short fragments (86 bp) and has a low error rate. Chemicalcleavage of DNA means very few unshuffled clones.

In Sequence Homology-Independent Protein Recombination (SHIPREC) alinker is used to facilitate fusion between 2 distantly/unrelated genes;nuclease treatment is used to generate a range of chimeras between thetwo. Result is a single crossover library of these fusions. (Sieber, V.,C. A. Martinez, and F. H. Arnold. 2001. Libraries of hybrid proteinsfrom distantly related sequences. Nat. Biotechnol 19:456-460.) Thisproduces a limited type of shuffling; mutagenesis is a separate process.This technique can create a library of chimeras with varying fractionsof each of 2 unrelated parent genes. No homology is needed. SHIPREC wastested with a heme-binding domain of a bacterial CP450 fused toN-terminal regions of a mammalian CP450; this produced mammalianactivity in a more soluble enzyme.

In Gene Site Saturation Mutagenesis (GSSM) the starting materials are asupercoiled dsDNA plasmid with insert and 2 primers degenerate at thedesired site for mutations. (Kretz, K. A., T. H. Richardson, K. A. Gray,D. E. Robertson, X. Tan, and J. M. Short, 2004, Gene site saturationmutagenesis: a comprehensive mutagenesis approach. Methods Enzymol.388:3-11.) Primers carry the mutation of interest and anneal to the samesequence on opposite strands of DNA; mutation in the middle of theprimer and ˜20 nucleotides of correct sequence flanking on each side.The sequence in the primer is NNN or NNK (coding) and MNN (noncoding)(N=all 4, K=G, T, M=A, C). After extension, DpnI is used to digestdam-methylated DNA to eliminate the wild-type template. This techniqueexplores all possible amino acid substitutions at a given locus (i.e.,one codon). The technique facilitates the generation of all possiblereplacements at one site with no nonsense codons and equal or near-equalrepresentation of most possible alleles. It does not require priorknowledge of structure, mechanism, or domains of the target enzyme. Iffollowed by shuffling or Gene Reassembly, this technology creates adiverse library of recombinants containing all possible combinations ofsingle-site up-mutations. The utility of this technology combination hasbeen demonstrated for the successful evolution of over 50 differentenzymes, and also for more than one property in a given enzyme.

Combinatorial Cassette Mutagenesis (CCM) involves the use of shortoligonucleotide cassettes to replace limited regions with a large numberof possible amino acid sequence alterations. (Reidhaar-Olson, J. F., J.U. Bowie, R. M. Breyer, J. C. Hu, K. L. Knight, W. A. Lim, M. C.Mossing, D. A. Parsell, K. R. Shoemaker, and R. T. Sauer, 1991, Randommutagenesis of protein sequences using oligonucleotide cassettes.Methods Enzymol. 208:564-586; and Reidhaar-Olson, J. F. and R. T. Sauer,1988, Combinatorial cassette mutagenesis as a probe of the informationalcontent of protein sequences. Science 241:53-57.) Simultaneoussubstitutions at 2 or 3 sites are possible using this technique.Additionally, the method tests a large multiplicity of possible sequencechanges at a limited range of sites. It has been used to explore theinformation content of lambda repressor DNA-binding domain.

Combinatorial Multiple Cassette Mutagenesis (CMCM) is essentiallysimilar to CCM except it is employed as part of a larger program: 1) Useof epPCR at high mutation rate to 2) ID hot spots and hot regions andthen 3) extension by CMCM to cover a defined region of protein sequencespace. (Reetz, M. T., S. Wilensek, D. Zha, and K. E. Jaeger, 2001,Directed Evolution of an Enantioselective Enzyme through CombinatorialMultiple-Cassette Mutagenesis. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed Engl. 40:3589-3591.)As with CCM, this method can test virtually all possible alterationsover a target region. If used along with methods to create randommutations and shuffled genes, it provides an excellent means ofgenerating diverse, shuffled proteins. This approach was successful inincreasing, by 51-fold, the enantioselectivity of an enzyme.

In the Mutator Strains technique conditional is mutator plasmids allowincreases of 20- to 4000-× in random and natural mutation frequencyduring selection and to block accumulation of deleterious mutations whenselection is not required. (Selifonova, O., F. Valle, and V.Schellenberger, 2001, Rapid evolution of novel traits in microorganisms.Appl Environ Microbiol 67:3645-3649.) This technology is based on aplasmid-derived mutD5 gene, which encodes a mutant subunit of DNApolymerase III. This subunit binds to endogenous DNA polymerase III andcompromises the proofreading ability of polymerase III in any of thestrain that harbors the plasmid. A broad-spectrum of base substitutionsand frameshift mutations occur. In order for effective use, the mutatorplasmid should be removed once the desired phenotype is achieved; thisis accomplished through a temperature sensitive origin of replication,which allows plasmid curing at 41° C. It should be noted that mutatorstrains have been explored for quite some time (e.g., see Winter andcoworkers, 1996, J. Mol. Biol. 260, 359-3680. In this technique veryhigh spontaneous mutation rates are observed. The conditional propertyminimizes non-desired background mutations. This technology could becombined with adaptive evolution to enhance mutagenesis rates and morerapidly achieve desired phenotypes.

“Look-Through Mutagenesis (LTM) is a multidimensional mutagenesis methodthat assesses and optimizes combinatorial mutations of selected aminoacids.” (Rajpal, A., N. Beyaz, L. Haber, G. Cappuccilli, H. Yee, R. R.Bhatt, T. Takeuchi, R. A. Lerner, and R. Crea, 2005, A general methodfor greatly improving the affinity of antibodies by using combinatoriallibraries. Proc Natl Acad Sci US.A 102:8466-8471.) Rather thansaturating each site with all possible amino acid changes, a set of 9 ischosen to cover the range of amino acid R-group chemistry. Fewer changesper site allows multiple sites to be subjected to this type ofmutagenesis. A >800-fold increase in binding affinity for an antibodyfrom low nanomolar to picomolar has been achieved through this method.This is a rational approach to minimize the number of randomcombinations and should increase the ability to find improved traits bygreatly decreasing the numbers of clones to be screened. This has beenapplied to antibody engineering, specifically to increase the bindingaffinity and/or reduce dissociation. The technique can be combined witheither screens or selections.

Gene Reassembly is a DNA shuffling method that can be applied tomultiple genes at one time or to creating a large library of chimeras(multiple mutations) of a single gene. (on the world-wide web atwww.verenium.com/Pages/Technology/EnzymeTech/TechEnzyTGR.html) Typicallythis technology is used in combination with ultra-high-throughputscreening to query the represented sequence space for desiredimprovements. This technique allows multiple gene recombinationindependent of homology. The exact number and position of cross-overevents can be pre-determined using fragments designed via bioinformaticanalysis. This technology leads to a very high level of diversity withvirtually no parental gene reformation and a low level of inactivegenes. Combined with GSSM, a large range of mutations can be tested forimproved activity. The method allows “blending” and “fine tuning” of DNAshuffling, e.g. codon usage can be optimized.

In Silico Protein Design Automation PDA is an optimization algorithmthat anchors the structurally defined protein backbone possessing aparticular fold, and searches sequence space for amino acidsubstitutions that can stabilize the fold and overall proteinenergetics. (Hayes, R. J., J. Bentzien, M. L. Ary, M. Y. Hwang, J. M.Jacinto, J. Vielmetter, A. Kundu, and B. I. Dahiyat, 2002, Combiningcomputational and experimental screening for rapid optimization ofprotein properties. Proc Natl Acad Sci US.A 99:15926-15931.) Thistechnology allows in silico structure-based entropy predictions in orderto search for structural tolerance toward protein amino acid variations.Statistical mechanics is applied to calculate coupling interactions ateach position—structural tolerance toward amino acid substitution is ameasure of coupling. Ultimately, this technology is designed to yielddesired modifications of protein properties while maintaining theintegrity of structural characteristics. The method computationallyassesses and allows filtering of a very large number of possiblesequence variants (10⁵⁰). Choice of sequence variants to test is relatedto predictions based on most favorable thermodynamics and ostensiblyonly stability or properties that are linked to stability can beeffectively addressed with this technology. The method has beensuccessfully used in some therapeutic proteins, especially inengineering immunoglobulins. In silico predictions avoid testingextraordinarily large numbers of potential variants. Predictions basedon existing three-dimensional structures are more likely to succeed thanpredictions based on hypothetical structures. This technology canreadily predict and allow targeted screening of multiple simultaneousmutations, something not possible with purely experimental technologiesdue to exponential increases in numbers.

Iterative Saturation Mutagenesis (ISM) involves 1) Use knowledge ofstructure/function to choose a likely site for enzyme improvement. 2)Saturation mutagenesis at chosen site using Stratagene QuikChange (orother suitable means). 3) Screen/select for desired properties. 4) Withimproved clone(s), start over at another site and continue repeating.(Reetz, M. T. and J. D. Carballeira, 2007, Iterative saturationmutagenesis (ISM) for rapid directed evolution of functional enzymes.Nat. Protoc. 2:891-903; and Reetz, M. T., J. D. Carballeira, and A.Vogel, 2006, Iterative saturation mutagenesis on the basis of B factorsas a strategy for increasing protein thermostability. Angew. Chem. Int.Ed Engl. 45:7745-7751.) This is a proven methodology assures allpossible replacements at a given position are made forscreening/selection.

Any of the aforementioned methods for mutagenesis can be used alone orin any combination. Additionally, any one or combination of the directedevolution methods can be used in conjunction with adaptive evolutiontechniques.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling can be utilized tooptimize growth conditions. Modeling can also be used to design geneknockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see,for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363,US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 andUS 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allowsreliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting themetabolism towards more efficient production of 1,3-butanediol.

One computational method for identifying and designing metabolicalterations favoring biosynthesis of a desired product is the OptKnockcomputational framework (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 84:647-657(2003)). OptKnock is a metabolic modeling and simulation program thatsuggests gene deletion strategies that result in genetically stablemicroorganisms which overproduce the target product. Specifically, theframework examines the complete metabolic and/or biochemical network ofa microorganism in order to suggest genetic manipulations that force thedesired biochemical to become an obligatory byproduct of cell growth. Bycoupling biochemical production with cell growth through strategicallyplaced gene deletions or other functional gene disruption, the growthselection pressures imposed on the engineered strains after long periodsof time in a bioreactor lead to improvements in performance as a resultof the compulsory growth-coupled biochemical production. Lastly, whengene deletions are constructed there is a negligible possibility of thedesigned strains reverting to their wild-type states because the genesselected by OptKnock are to be completely removed from the genome.Therefore, this computational methodology can be used to either identifyalternative pathways that lead to biosynthesis of a desired product orused in connection with the non-naturally occurring microbial organismsfor further optimization of biosynthesis of a desired product.

Briefly, OptKnock is a term used herein to refer to a computationalmethod and system for modeling cellular metabolism. The OptKnock programrelates to a framework of models and methods that incorporate particularconstraints into flux balance analysis (FBA) models. These constraintsinclude, for example, qualitative kinetic information, qualitativeregulatory information, and/or DNA microarray experimental data.OptKnock also computes solutions to various metabolic problems by, forexample, tightening the flux boundaries derived through flux balancemodels and subsequently probing the performance limits of metabolicnetworks in the presence of gene additions or deletions. OptKnockcomputational framework allows the construction of model formulationsthat enable an effective query of the performance limits of metabolicnetworks and provides methods for solving the resulting mixed-integerlinear programming problems. The metabolic modeling and simulationmethods referred to herein as OptKnock are described in, for example,U.S. 2002/0168654, WO 2002/055995, and U.S. 2009/0047719.

Another computational method for identifying and designing metabolicalterations favoring biosynthetic production of a product is a metabolicmodeling and simulation system termed SimPheny®. This computationalmethod and system is described in, for example, U.S. 2003/0233218, filedJun. 14, 2002, and in WO/2003/106998. SimPheny® is a computationalsystem that can be used to produce a network model in silico and tosimulate the flux of mass, energy or charge through the chemicalreactions of a biological system to define a solution space thatcontains any and all possible functionalities of the chemical reactionsin the system, thereby determining a range of allowed activities for thebiological system. This approach is referred to as constraints-basedmodeling because the solution space is defined by constraints such asthe known stoichiometry of the included reactions as well as reactionthermodynamic and capacity constraints associated with maximum fluxesthrough reactions. The space defined by these constraints can beinterrogated to determine the phenotypic capabilities and behavior ofthe biological system or of its biochemical components.

These computational approaches are consistent with biological realitiesbecause biological systems are flexible and can reach the same result inmany different ways. Biological systems are designed throughevolutionary mechanisms that have been restricted by fundamentalconstraints that all living systems must face. Therefore,constraints-based modeling strategy embraces these general realities.Further, the ability to continuously impose further restrictions on anetwork model via the tightening of constraints results in a reductionin the size of the solution space, thereby enhancing the precision withwhich physiological performance or phenotype can be predicted.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in theart will be able to apply various computational frameworks for metabolicmodeling and simulation to design and implement biosynthesis of adesired compound in host microbial organisms. Such metabolic modelingand simulation methods include, for example, the computational systemsexemplified above as SimPheny® and OptKnock. For illustration of theinvention, some methods are described herein with reference to theOptKnock computation framework for modeling and simulation. Thoseskilled in the art will know how to apply the identification, design andimplementation of the metabolic alterations using OptKnock to any ofsuch other metabolic modeling and simulation computational frameworksand methods well known in the art.

The methods described above will provide one set of metabolic reactionsto disrupt. Elimination of each reaction within the set or metabolicmodification can result in a desired product as an obligatory productduring the growth phase of the organism. Because the reactions areknown, a solution to the bilevel OptKnock problem also will provide theassociated gene or genes encoding one or more enzymes that catalyze eachreaction within the set of reactions. Identification of a set ofreactions and their corresponding genes encoding the enzymesparticipating in each reaction is generally an automated process,accomplished through correlation of the reactions with a reactiondatabase having a relationship between enzymes and encoding genes.

Once identified, the set of reactions that are to be disrupted in orderto achieve production of a desired product are implemented in the targetcell or organism by functional disruption of at least one gene encodingeach metabolic reaction within the set. One particularly useful means toachieve functional disruption of the reaction set is by deletion of eachencoding gene. However, in some instances, it can be beneficial todisrupt the reaction by other genetic aberrations including, forexample, mutation, deletion of regulatory regions such as promoters orcis binding sites for regulatory factors, or by truncation of the codingsequence at any of a number of locations. These latter aberrations,resulting in less than total deletion of the gene set can be useful, forexample, when rapid assessments of the coupling of a product are desiredor when genetic reversion is less likely to occur.

To identify additional productive solutions to the above describedbilevel OptKnock problem which lead to further sets of reactions todisrupt or metabolic modifications that can result in the biosynthesis,including growth-coupled biosynthesis of a desired product, anoptimization method, termed integer cuts, can be implemented. Thismethod proceeds by iteratively solving the OptKnock problem exemplifiedabove with the incorporation of an additional constraint referred to asan integer cut at each iteration. Integer cut constraints effectivelyprevent the solution procedure from choosing the exact same set ofreactions identified in any previous iteration that obligatorily couplesproduct biosynthesis to growth. For example, if a previously identifiedgrowth-coupled metabolic modification specifies reactions 1, 2, and 3for disruption, then the following constraint prevents the samereactions from being simultaneously considered in subsequent solutions.The integer cut method is well known in the art and can be founddescribed in, for example, Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Prog. 17:791-797(2001). As with all methods described herein with reference to their usein combination with the OptKnock computational framework for metabolicmodeling and simulation, the integer cut method of reducing redundancyin iterative computational analysis also can be applied with othercomputational frameworks well known in the art including, for example,SimPheny®.

The methods exemplified herein allow the construction of cells andorganisms that biosynthetically produce a desired product, including theobligatory coupling of production of a target biochemical product togrowth of the cell or organism engineered to harbor the identifiedgenetic alterations. Therefore, the computational methods describedherein allow the identification and implementation of metabolicmodifications that are identified by an in silico method selected fromOptKnock or SimPheny®. The set of metabolic modifications can include,for example, addition of one or more biosynthetic pathway enzymes and/orfunctional disruption of one or more metabolic reactions including, forexample, disruption by gene deletion.

As discussed above, the OptKnock methodology was developed on thepremise that mutant microbial networks can be evolved towards theircomputationally predicted maximum-growth phenotypes when subjected tolong periods of growth selection. In other words, the approach leveragesan organism's ability to self-optimize under selective pressures. TheOptKnock framework allows for the exhaustive enumeration of genedeletion combinations that force a coupling between biochemicalproduction and cell growth based on network stoichiometry. Theidentification of optimal gene/reaction knockouts requires the solutionof a bilevel optimization problem that chooses the set of activereactions such that an optimal growth solution for the resulting networkoverproduces the biochemical of interest (Burgard et al., Biotechnol.Bioeng. 84:647-657 (2003)).

An in silico stoichiometric model of E. coli metabolism can be employedto identify essential genes for metabolic pathways as exemplifiedpreviously and described in, for example, U.S. patent publications US2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and in U.S. Pat. No.7,127,379. As disclosed herein, the OptKnock mathematical framework canbe applied to pinpoint gene deletions leading to the growth-coupledproduction of a desired product. Further, the solution of the bilevelOptKnock problem provides only one set of deletions. To enumerate allmeaningful solutions, that is, all sets of knockouts leading togrowth-coupled production formation, an optimization technique, termedinteger cuts, can be implemented. This entails iteratively solving theOptKnock problem with the incorporation of an additional constraintreferred to as an integer cut at each iteration, as discussed above.

It is understood that modifications which do not substantially affectthe activity of the various embodiments of this invention are alsoincluded within the definition of the invention provided herein.Accordingly, the following examples are intended to illustrate but notlimit the present invention.

Example I 1,3-Butanediol Synthesis Via Alanine

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable ofproducing 1,3-butanediol using the alanine pathway in FIG. 1 via StepsA, B, C, D and H.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer a1,3-butanediol-producing pathway as shown in FIG. 1. E. coli provides agood host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capableof producing 1,3-butanediol. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulationand is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol,acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectivelyunder anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce 1,3-butanediol,nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the alanine pathway asdescribed previously, are expressed in E. coli using well knownmolecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001;Ausubel supra, 1999; Roberts et al., supra, 1989).

In particular, the ortA (YP_001086914.1), ortB (YP_001086915.1), dat(P19938), and pdc (P06672) genes encoding the AKP thiolase, AKPaminotransferase and 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase activities,respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim,Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the yqhD(NP_417484.1) and adh (AAA23199.2) genes encoding 3-oxobutyraldehdyereductase (aldehyde reducing) and 4-hydroxy,2-butanone reductase,respectively are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim,Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The two sets of plasmids aretransformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins andenzymes required for 1,3-butanediol synthesis via the alanine pathway.Note that E. coli possesses the ability to form D-alanine.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucosecontaining medium following procedures well known in the art (see, forexample, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of alaninepathway genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art fordetermining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including forexample, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting.Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assaysspecific for the individually activities. The ability of the engineeredE. coli strain to produce 1,3-butanediol is confirmed using HPLC, gaschromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) or liquid chromatography-massspectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional 1,3-butanediolsynthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficientutilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessedto determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a ratelimiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at lowlevels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example,introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimizegrowth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts thatadditionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S.patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149,US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466,and in U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliablepredictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolismtowards more efficient production of 1,3-butanediol. One modeling methodis the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al.,Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to selectgene knockouts that collectively result in better production of1,3-butanediol. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate betterproducers of, for example, alanine or 2-amino-4-oxopentanoateintermediates or the 1,3-butanediol product. Adaptive evolution isperformed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fongand Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds ofmodeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied tothe 1,3-butanediol producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of 1,3-butanediol, the above alaninepathway-containing organism is cultured in a fermenter using a mediumknown in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobicconditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch orcontinuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first spargingthe medium with nitrogen and then sealing culture vessel (e.g., flaskscan be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap). Microaerobic conditions alsocan be utilized by providing a small hole for limited aeration. The pHof the medium is maintained at a pH of 7 by addition of an acid, such asH2SO4. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density usinga spectrophotometer (600 nm), and the glucose uptake rate by monitoringcarbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirablealcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC(Shimadzu) with an HPX-087 column (BioRad), using a refractive indexdetector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids,Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng., 775-779 (2005).

Example II 1,3-BDO Synthesis Using Acetoacetyl-CoA as the Intermediate

This Example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable ofproducing 1,3-butanediol using acetoacetyl-CoA as the precursor (StepsG, H and I in FIG. 2).

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the pathwaythrough Steps G (conversion of acetoacetyl-CoA into3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA), H (conversion of 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA into3-hydroxybutyraldehyde) and I (conversion of 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde into1,3-butanediol) in FIG. 2. E. coli provides a good host for generating anon-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing1,3-butanediol. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is knownto be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid,formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobicor microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce 1,3-butanediol,nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the disclosed pathway(Steps G, H and I) as described previously, are expressed in E. coliusing well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example,Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999; Roberts et al., supra,1989). Note that E. coli has a native thiolase encoded by atoB(Accession number: NP_416728.1) that condenses two molecules ofacetyl-CoA to form acetoacetyl-CoA.

Further, hbd (NP_349314.1) encoding acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketonereducing), is cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim,Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The plasmid is transformed into E.coli strain MG1655 to express the enzyme required for the formation of3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA via acetoacetyl-CoA. An aldehyde dehydrogenase(selected from Table A below) that converts 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA into3-hydroxybutyraldehyde, and an alcohol dehydrogenase (selected fromTable B below) that further reduces 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde into 1,3-BDOare also cloned into the pZE13 vector under the PA1/lacO promoter.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucosecontaining medium following procedures well known in the art (see, forexample, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of the pathwaygenes is corroborated using methods well known in the art fordetermining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including, forexample, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting.Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assaysspecific for the individually activities. The ability of the engineeredE. coli strain to produce 1,3-butanediol is confirmed using HPLC, gaschromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) or liquid chromatography-massspectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional 1,3-butanediolsynthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficientutilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessedto determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a ratelimiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at lowlevels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example,introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimizegrowth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts thatadditionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S.patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149,US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466,and in U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliablepredictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolismtowards more efficient production of 1,3-butanediol. One modeling methodis the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al.,Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to selectgene knockouts that collectively result in better production of1,3-butanediol. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate betterproducers of, for example, the acetyl-CoA intermediate or the1,3-butanediol product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve bothgrowth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet.36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Basedon the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering andadaptive evolution can be applied to the 1,3-butanediol producer tofurther increase production.

For large-scale production of 1,3-butanediol, the recombinant organismis cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to supportgrowth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations areperformed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobicconditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen andthen sealing culture vessel (e.g., flasks can be sealed with a septumand crimp-cap). Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized byproviding a small hole for limited aeration. The pH of the medium ismaintained at a pH of 7 by addition of an acid, such as H2SO4. Thegrowth rate is determined by measuring optical density using aspectrophotometer (600 nm), and the glucose uptake rate by monitoringcarbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirablealcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC(Shimadzu) with an HPX-087 column (BioRad), using a refractive indexdetector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids(Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng., 90:775-779 (2005)).

Several aldehyde dehydrogenases were tested for activity on3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. Crude lysates of bacteria, each strain carryingone out of six genes listed in Table A below encoding for an aldehydedehydrogenase was tested for activity on 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA bymeasuring the release of CoA moiety. The genes that were tested and werefound to have significant activity on 3-HBCoA encode the proteins withthe following accession and GI numbers:

TABLE A Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism bld AAP42563.1 31075383Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum ald ACL06658.1 1. 218764192Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans AK-01 ald YP_001452373 2. 157145054Citrobacter koseri ATCC BAA-895 pduP 3. NP_460996.1 4. 16765381Salmonella enterica Typhimurium pduP 5. ABJ64680.1 6. 116099531Lactobacillus brevis ATCC 367 7. BselDRAFT_1651 8. ZP_02169447 9.163762382 Bacillus selenitireducens MLS10

To correct for background activity in the lysate, measured activitieswere compared to a negative control without ALD gene (vector only,“Vo”). FIG. 4 shows the specific activity of each of the tested genes on3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. The gene ids are shown on the x-axis.

Further, bld (GenBank ID: AAP42563.1, GI number: 31075383) was alsotested for activity on 3-HBCoA. The following FIG. 5 shows the activityof the gene on 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA before and after dialysis.

Alcohol dehydrogenases that were tested for activity on3-hydroxybutyraldehyde and demonstrated to have significant activity arelisted below.

TABLE B Protein GenBank ID GI Number Organism Bdh YP_001309304 150017050Clostridium beijerinckii (Cbei_2181) Bdh YP_001309535.1 150016596Clostridium beijerinckii (Cbei_1722) Bdh YP_001309535.1 150017281Clostridium beijerinckii (Cbei_2421)

The following protocol was used to demonstrate alcohol dehydrogenaseactivity (i.e., conversion of 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde to 1,3-BDO) andcombined aldehyde and alcohol dehydrogenase activities (i.e., conversionof 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA into 1,3-BDO).

Chemically competent cells were transformed with plasmids containingeither an aldehyde dehydrogenase or an alcohol dehydrogenase (listed inTables A and B above). Colonies from the plates were picked and grown inLB plus 100 ug/ml carbenecillin overnight, then 0.6 mL was used toinoculate 60 mL culture of each alcohol dehydrogenase, or 1.5 mL wasused to inoculate a 500 mL culture of each aldehyde dehydrogenase. Cellswere grown at 37° C. to an O.D. of ˜0.7 and induced with IPTG. Thecultures were incubated at 30° C. during protein expression for 4 hours.The cell cultures were divided into 30 ml aliquots, centrifuged and thecell pellets were stored at −80° C. A sample of the cell culture wasused to estimate final cell density.

Combinations of alcohol dehydrogenases and aldehyde dehydrogenases werescreened in a 96-well plate format with 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA as asubstrate plus a control (no substrate). Alternatively, for testing thealcohol dehydrogenases activity, only the alcohol dehydrogenases wereadded with and without the substrate, 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde.Preparation of cell lysates was performed on ice in the coldroom (4°C.). Final cell density was used to calculate the quantity of Bug Bustercell lysis reagent for each cell pellet. Lysozyme (10 uL) and benzonase(10 uL) were added to 35 ml bugbuster and gently inverted to mix. First,50 μm of dithiothreitol (100 mM stock) was added to the pellet, then 0.5ml per O.D. of 1.0 (at 600 nm) of the Bug Buster plus enzyme mixture wasadded to the cell pellet and gently mixed to resuspend.

To each well, 50 ul of 1 M MOPS (pH=7.5), and 25 ul of cofactor mixture(4 mM NADH and 4 mM NADPH), both 100 uL aldehyde dehydrogenase celllysate, 150 uL alcohol dehydrogenase cell lysate or only 150 uL alcoholdehydrogenase cell lysate was added and gently mixed. Then, the relevantsubstrate was added to the wells. 25 mg of 3-hydroxybutyryl CoA wasresuspended in 250 uL water and 5 ul was added to each well testing forboth alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase activities for a finalconcentration of 1.8 mM. For testing only the alcohol dehydrogenaseactivity, 50 uL of 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde (prepared by mixing 0.6 mlacetaldehyde in 5 ml water plus catalytic base (one pellet of NaOH)Guthrie, J. P. (reference attached) was added to each well. The finalconcentration of 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde in each well was approximately50 mM. The 96-deepwell plate was sealed with a plastic PCR seal andincubated at 30° C. shaking overnight (18 hours total). Because proteinand cell debris form precipitates during the incubation period, theplates were centrifuged for 10 min at 4500×g, and the supernate wasfiltered through a Whatman 96-well filter plate (0.45 μm) prior to LC-MSanalysis. Samples were analyzed for 1,3-butanediol formation.

FIG. 6 shows 1,3-BDO concentrations when 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde wasadded as a substrate and in the control samples with no substrate. TheGI numbers for the alcohol dehydrogenases are shown.

FIG. 7 shows 1,3-BDO concentrations when 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA was addedas a substrate and in the control samples with no substrate. The GInumbers for the alcohol dehydrogenases are shown. The GI number for thealdehyde dehydrogenase tested in conjunction is 163762382.

Example III 1,3-BDO Synthesis Using 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA as theIntermediate

This Example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable ofproducing 1,3-butanediol using 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA as the precursor(Steps A, B and E in FIG. 3).

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the pathwaythrough Steps A, B and E in FIG. 3. E. coli provides a good host forgenerating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing1,3-butanediol. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is knownto be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid,formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobicor microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce 1,3-butanediol,nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the disclosed pathway(Steps A, B and E) as described previously, are expressed in E. coliusing well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example,Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999; Roberts et al., supra,1989). A recombinant strain that has been engineered to producesignificant quantities of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA has been described by theapplicants previously (Burk et al. (US 20090075351) and will be used forinserting the proposed pathway to 1,3-butanediol.

Further, abfD (YP_3001396399.1), crt (NP_349318.1) and adhE2(AAK09379.1) genes encoding 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, crotonaseand 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) activitiesrespectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim,Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The plasmid is transformed intothe recombinant E. coli strain producing 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to expressthe proteins and enzymes required for 1,3-butanediol synthesis from thismetabolite.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucosecontaining medium following procedures well known in the art (see, forexample, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). The expression of the pathwaygenes is corroborated using methods well known in the art fordetermining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including, forexample, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting.Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assaysspecific for the individually activities. The ability of the engineeredE. coli strain to produce 1,3-butanediol is confirmed using HPLC, gaschromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) or liquid chromatography-massspectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional 1,3-butanediolsynthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficientutilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessedto determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a ratelimiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at lowlevels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example,introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimizegrowth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts thatadditionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S.patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149,US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466,and in U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliablepredictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolismtowards more efficient production of 1,3-butanediol. One modeling methodis the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al.,Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to selectgene knockouts that collectively result in better production of1,3-butanediol. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate betterproducers of, for example, the acetyl-CoA intermediate or the1,3-butanediol product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve bothgrowth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet.36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Basedon the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering andadaptive evolution can be applied to the 1,3-butanediol producer tofurther increase production.

For large-scale production of 1,3-butanediol, the recombinant organismis cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to supportgrowth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations areperformed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobicconditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen andthen sealing culture vessel (e.g., flasks can be sealed with a septumand crimp-cap). Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized byproviding a small hole for limited aeration. The pH of the medium ismaintained at a pH of 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. Thegrowth rate is determined by measuring optical density using aspectrophotometer (600 nm), and the glucose uptake rate by monitoringcarbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirablealcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC(Shimadzu) with an HPX-087 column (BioRad), using a refractive indexdetector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids(Lin et al., Biotechnol Bioeng. 90:775-779 (2005))

TABLE 36 (Ref: FIG. 1) EC Desired Desired Enzyme Gene GenBank ID KnownStep class substrate product name name (if available) OrganismSubstrates A 2.3.1.b D-alanine 2-amino-4- AKP Thiolase ortAYP_001086914.1 Clostridium D-alanine oxo- difficile 630 pentanoate ortBYP_001086915.1 Clostridium D-alanine difficile 630 Amet_2368YP_001320181.1 Alkaliphilus D-alanine metalliredigenes QYF Amet_2369YP_001320182.1 Alkaliphilus D-alanine metalliredigenes QYF Teth514_1478YP_001663101.1 Thermoanaero- D-alanine bacter sp. X514 Teth514_1479YP_001663102.1 Thermoanaero- D-alanine bacter sp. X514 B 2.6.1.a2-amino-4- 2,4-oxo- 2-amino-4- aspC NP_415448.1 Escherichia coliL-aspartate oxo- pentanoate oxopentanoate pentanoate aminotrans- feraseor oxidoreductase (deaminating) avtA YP_026231.1 Escherichia coliL-alanine, L-valine AAT2 P23542.3 Saccharomyces L-aspartate cerevisaedat P19938 Bacillus sp. D-alanine, D-2- YM-1 aminobutanoate, D-aspartatedat O07597 Bacillus subtilis D-alanine, D-2- aminobutanoate, D-aspartateldh P0A393 Bacillus cereus L-leucine, L-valine, 2-ami- nobutanoate, L-isoleucine nadX NP_229443.1 Thermotoga L-aspartate maritima C 4.1.1.a2,4-dioxo- 3-oxobutanal 2,4-dioxo- pdc P06672.1 Zymomonas 2-ketobutyratepentanoate pentanoate mobilus decarboxylase pdc1 P06169 Saccharomyces2-ketobutyrate, 3- cerevisae hydroxypyruvate mdlC P20906.2 Pseudomonas2-ketobutyrate putdia kgd O50463.4 Mycobacterium alpha-ketoglutaratetuberculosis D 1.1.1.a 3-oxobu- 4-hydroxy, 2- 3-oxobu- alrA BAB12273.1Acinetobacter sp. C2-C14 aldehydes tyraldehyde butanone tyraldehydeStrain M-1 reductase (aldehyde reducing) ADH2 NP_014032.1 Saccharymycespropionaldehyde, cerevisiae isobutyraldehyde, butyraldehyde, 2-methylbu- tyraldehyde, 3- methylbu- tyraldehyde, 2-phenylac- etaldehydeyqhD NP_417484.1 Escherichia coli acetaldehyde, malondialdehyde,propanaldehyde, butanaldehyde, and acrolein bdh I NP_349892.1Clostridium butyraldehyde acetobutylicum bdh II NP_349891.1 Clostridiumbutyraldehyde acetobutylicum 4hbd YP_726053.1 Ralstonia succinateeutropha semialdehyde H16 ADHI AAR91477.1 Geobacillus ethanol,1-butanol, thermogluco- 1-pentanol, sidasius 1-heptanol, M10EXG1-hexanol, 1-octanol, 2-propanol mmsb P28811.1 Pseudomonas 3- aeruginosahydroxybu- tyraldehydre, malonic semialdehyde, methylmalonatesemialdehyde P84067 P84067 Thermus methylmalonate thermophilussemialdehyde E 4.1.1.a 2-amino-4- 4-ami- 2-amino-4- lysA NP_417315.1Escherichia coli meso- oxo- nobutan-2- oxopentanoate diaminopimelatepentanoate one decarboxylase lysA AAA25361.1 Mycobacterium meso-tuberculosis diaminopimelate lysA BAC92756.1 Methylophilus meso-methylotrophus diaminopimelate odc1 AA59967.1 Homo sapiens D-ornithinepanD P0A790 Escherichia coli L-aspartate panD Q9X4N0 CorynebacteriumL-aspartate glutanicum panD P65660 Mycobacterium L-aspartatetuberculosis F 4.3.1.a 4-ami- butenone 4-ami- aspA NP_418562 Escherichiacoli L-aspartate nobutan-2-one nobutan-2-one K12 subsp. ammonia lyaseMG1655 aspA P44324.1 Haemophilus L-aspartate influenzae aspA P07346.1Pseudomonas L-aspartate fluorescens ansB P26899.1 Bacillus subtilusL-aspartate aspA P33109.1 Serratia L-aspartate marcescens G 4.2.1.abutenone 4-hydroxy,2- butenone fumA P0AC33 Escherichia coli fumaratebutanone hydratase K12 fumC P05042 Escherichia coli fumarate K12 fumCO69294 Campylobacter fumarate jejuni fumC P84127 Thermus fumaratethermophilus fumH P14408 Rattus norvegicus fumarate hmd ABC88407.1Eubacterium 2-methylene- barkeri glutarate dmdA ABC88408 Eubacteriumdimethylmaleate barkeri dmdB ABC88409.1 Eubacterium dimethylmaleatebarkeri H 1.1.1.a 4-hydroxy, 2- 1,3-butanediol 4-hydroxy, 2- bdhAAA58352.1 Homo sapiens 3-oxobutyrate butanone butanone reductase adhAAA23199.2 Clostridium acetone beijerinckii NRRL B593 adhA AAC25556Pyrococuus 2-pentanaol, furiosus pyruvaldehyde ldh YP_725182.1 Ralstonialactate, 2- eutropha oxobutyrate, 2-oxopentaonotae, 2-oxoglutarate adhP14941.1 Thermoanaero- acetone bacter brockii HTD4 I 4.3.1.a 2-amino-4-acetylacrylate 2-amino-4- aspA NP_418562 Escherichia coli L-aspartateoxo- oxopentanoate K12 subsp. pentanoate ammonia lyase MG1655 aspAP44324.1 Haemophilus L-aspartate influenzae aspA P07346.1 PseudomonasL-aspartate fluorescens ansB P26899.1 Bacillus subtilus L-aspartate aspAP33109.1 Serratia L-aspartate marcescens J 4.1.1.a acetylacrylatebutenone acetylacrylate xylII YP_709328.1 Pseudomonas 4-oxalocrotonatedecarboxylase putida xylIII YP_709353.1 Pseudomonas 4-oxalocrotonateputida dmpH CAA43228.1 Pseudomonas sp. 4-oxalocrotonate CF600 dmpECAA43225.1 Pseudomonas sp. 4-oxalocrotonate CF600 pdc U63827Lactobacillus cinnamate and plantarum derivatives pad AB330293Klebsiella cinnamate and oxytoca derivatives K 2.6.1.a 4-ami-3-oxobutanal 4-ami- SkyPYD4 ABF58893 Saccharomyces beta-alaninenobutan-2-one nobutan-2-one kluyveri aminotrans- ferase oroxidoreductase (deaminating) gabT P22256 Escherichia coli4-aminobutyrate Abat P50554 Rattus norvegicus 3-amino-2-methylpropionate UGA1 NP_011533 Saccharomyces 4-aminobutyrate cerevisaekdd AAL93966.1 Fusobacterium 3,5- nucleatum diaminohexanoate lysDHBAB39707 Geobacillus L-lysine stearothermophilus L 1.1.1.a 2-amino-4-2-amino-4- 2-amino-4- thrA AAC73113 Escherichia coli aspartate oxo-hydroxy- oxopentanoate semialdehyde pentanoate pentanoate dehydrogenasehom6 CAA89671 Saccharomyces aspartate cerevisae semialdehyde hom2CAD63186 Lactobacillus aspartate plantarum semialdehyde akthr2 O81852Arabidopsis aspartate thaliana semialdehyde hom1 CAD64819 Lactobacillusaspartate plantarum semialdehyde M 2.6.1.a 2-amino-4- 2-oxo-4-2-amino-4- aspC NP_415448.1 Escherichia coli L-aspartate hydroxy-hydroxy- hydroxy- pentanoate pentanoate pentanoate aminotrans- ferase oroxidoreductase (deaminating) avtA YP_026231.1 Escherichia coliL-alanine, L-valine AAT2 P23542.3 Saccharomyces L-aspartate cerevisaedat Bacillus sp. P19938 D-alanine, YM-1 D-2-aminobutanoate, D-aspartatedat Bacillus O07597 D-alanine, subtilis D-2-aminobutanoate, D-aspartateldh P0A393 Bacillus cereus L-leucine, L-valine, 2-ami- nobutanoate, L-isoleucine nadX NP_229443.1 Thermotoga L-aspartate maritima N 4.1.1.a2-oxo-4- 3-hydroxybutanal 2-oxo-4- pdc P06672.1 Zymomonas 2-ketobutyratehydroxy- hydroxy- mobilus pentanoate pentanoate pdc1 P06169Saccharomyces 2-ketobutyrate, cerevisae 3-hydroxypyruvate mdlC P20906.2Pseudomonas 2-ketobutyrate putdia kgd O50463.4 Mycobacteriumalpha-ketoglutarate tuberculosis O 1.1.1.a 3-oxobu- 3-hydroxybu-3-oxobu- bdh AAA58352.1 Homo sapiens 3-oxobutyrate tyraldehydetyraldehyde tyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing) adh AAA23199.2Clostridium acetone beijerinckii NRRL B593 adhA AAC25556 Pyrococuus2-pentanaol, furiosus pyruvaldehyde ldh YP_725182.1 Ralstonia lactate,eutropha 2-oxobutyrate, 2-oxopentaonotae, 2-oxoglutarate adh P14941.1Thermoanaero- acetone bacter brockii HTD4 P 1.1.1.a 3-hydroxybu-1,3-butanediol 3-hydroxybu- alrA BAB12273.1 Acinetobacter sp. C2-C14aldehydes tyraldehyde tyraldehyde Strain M-1 reductase ADH2 NP_014032.1Saccharymyces propionaldehyde, cerevisiae isobutyraldehyde,butyraldehyde, 2-methylbutyr- aldehyde, 3-methylbutyr- aldehyde,2-phenylac- etaldehyde yqhD NP_417484.1 Escherichia coli acetaldehyde,malondialdehyde, propanaldehyde, butanaldehyde, and acrolein bdh INP_349892.1 Clostridium butyraldehyde acetobutylicum bdh II NP_349891.1Clostridium butyraldehyde acetobutylicum 4hbd YP_726053.1 Ralstoniasuccinate eutropha semialdehyde H16 ADHI AAR91477.1 Geobacillus ethanol,1-butanol, thermogluco- 1-pentanol, sidasius 1-heptanol, M10EXG1-hexanol, 1-octanol, 2-propanol mmsb P28811.1 Pseudomonas 3-hydroxybu-aeruginosa tyraldehyde, malonic semialdehyde, methylmalonatesemialdehyde P84067 P84067 Thermus methylmalonate thermophilussemialdehyde

TABLE 37 (Ref: FIG. 2) EC Desired Desired Enzyme Gene GenBank ID KnownStep class substrate product name name (if available) OrganismSubstrates A 1.2.1.b acetoace- 3-oxobutyraldehyde acetoacetyl- AldAAT66436 Clostridium butyryl-CoA tyl-CoA CoA reductase beijerinckii(aldehdye forming) sucD NP_904963.1 Porphyromonas succinyl-CoAgingivalis bphG BAA03892.1 Pseudomonas sp acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde,butyraldehyde, isobutyraldehyde and formaldehyde Msed_0709YP_001190808.1 Metallosphaera malonyl-CoA sedula mcr NP_378167Sulfolobus malonyl-CoA, tokodaii methylmalonyl- CoA B 1.1.1.a3-oxobutyr- 3- 3-oxobutyr- bdh AAA58352.1 Homo sapiens 3-oxobutyratealdehyde hydroxybu- aldehyde tyraldehyde reductase (ketone- reducing)adh AAA23199.2 Clostridium acetone beijerinckii NRRL B593 adhA AAC25556Pyrococuus 2-pentanaol, furiosus pyruvaldehyde ldh YP_725182.1 Ralstonialactate, 2- eutropha oxobutyrate, 2- oxopentaonotae, 2- oxoglutarate adhP14941.1 Thermoanaero- acetone bacter brockii HTD4 C 1.1.1.a3-hydroxybu- 1,3-butanediol 3-hydroxy- alrA BAB12273.1 Acinetobacter sp.C2-C14 aldehydes tyraldehyde butyraldehyde Strain M-1 reductase ADH2NP_014032.1 Saccharymyces propionaldehyde, cerevisiae isobutyraldehyde,butyraldehyde, 2-methylbutyr- aldehyde, 3-methylbutyr- aldehyde,2-phenylacet- aldehyde yqhD NP_417484.1 Escherichia coli acetaldehyde,malondialdehyde, propanaldehyde, butanaldehyde, and acrolein bdh INP_349892.1 Clostridium butyraldehyde acetobutylicum bdh II NP_349891.1Clostridium butyraldehyde acetobutylicum 4hbd YP_726053.1 Ralstoniasuccinate eutropha H16 semialdehyde ADHI AAR91477.1 Geobacillus ethanol,1-butanol, thermogluco- 1-pentanol, sidasius 1-heptanol, M10EXG1-hexanol, 1-octanol, 2-propanol mmsb P28811.1 Pseudomonas3-hydroxybutyr- aeruginosa aldehyde, malonic semialdehyde,methylmalonate semialdehyde P84067 P84067 Thermus methylmalonatethermophilus semialdehyde D 1.1.1.c acetoace- 4-hydroxy, acetoacetyl-adhE2 AAK09379.1 Clostridium butanoyl-CoA tyl-CoA 2-butanone CoAreductase acetobutylicum (alcohol - forming) mcr AAS20429.1 Chloroflexusmalonyl-CoA aurantiacus FAR AAD38039.1 Simmondsia long chain acyl-chinensis CoA E 1.1.1.a 3-oxobutyr- 4-hydroxy, 3-oxobutyraldehdye alrABAB12273.1 Acinetobacter sp. C2-C14 aldehydes aldehyde 2-butanonereductase Strain M-1 (aldehyde reducing) ADH2 NP_014032.1 Saccharymycespropionaldehyde , cerevisiae isobutyraldehyde, butyraldehyde, 2-methylbu- tyraldehyde, 3-methylbutyr- aldehyde, 2- phenylacetalde- hydeyqhD NP_417484.1 Escherichia coli acetaldehyde, malondialdehyde,propanaldehyde, butanaldehyde, and acrolein bdh I NP_349892.1Clostridium butyraldehyde acetobutylicum bdh II NP_349891.1 Clostridiumbutyraldehyde acetobutylicum 4hbd YP_726053.1 Ralstonia succinateeutropha H16 semialdehyde ADHI AAR91477.1 Geobacillus ethanol,1-butanol, thermogluco- 1-pentanol, 1- sidasius heptanol, 1- M10EXGhexanol, 1-octanol, 2-propanol mmsb P28811.1 Pseudomonas 3- aeruginosahydroxybutyralde- hyde, malonic semialdehyde, methylmalonatesemialdehyde P84067 P84067 Thermus methylmalonate thermophilussemialdehyde F 1.1.1.a 4-hydroxy, 1,3-butanediol 4-hydroxy, 2- bdhAAA58352.1 Homo sapiens 3-oxobutyrate 2-butanone butanone reductase adhAAA23199.2 Clostridium acetone beijerinckii NRRL B593 adhA AAC25556Pyrococuus 2-pentanaol, furiosus pyruvaldehyde ldh YP_725182.1 Ralstonialactate, 2- eutropha oxobutyrate, 2-oxopentaonotae, 2-oxoglutarate adhP14941.1 Thermoanaero- acetone bacter brockii HTD4 G 1.1.1.a acetoace-3-hydroxybu- acetaocetyl hbd NP_349314.1 Clostridium acetoacetyl-CoAtyl-CoA tyryl-CoA CoA reductase acetobutylicum (ketone reducing) hbdAAM14586.1 Clostridium acetoacetyl-CoA beijerinckii Hbd2 EDK34807.1Clostridium acetoacetyl-CoA kluyveri Hbd1 EDK32512.1 Clostridiumacetoacetyl-CoA kluyveri Msed_1423 YP_001191505 Metallosphaera3-hydroxybutyryl- sedula CoA (suspected) Msed_0399 YP_001190500Metallosphaera 3-hydroxybutyryl- sedula CoA (suspected) Msed_0389YP_001190490 Metallosphaera 3-hydroxybutyryl- sedula CoA (suspected)Msed_1993 YP_001192057 Metallosphaera 3-hydroxybutyryl- sedula CoA(suspected) fadB P21177.2 Escherichia coli 3-oxoacyl-CoA fadJ P77399.1Escherichia coli 3-oxoacyl-CoA H 1.2.1.b 3-hydroxybu- 3-hydroxybu-3-hydroxy- Ald AAT66436 Clostridium butyryl-CoA tyryl- tyraldehydebutyryl-CoA beijerinckii CoA redcutase (aldehyde forming) sucDNP_904963.1 Porphyromonas succinyl-CoA gingivalis bphG BAA03892.1Pseudomonas sp acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde,isobutyraldehyde and formaldehyde Msed_0709 YP_001190808.1Metallosphaera malonyl-CoA sedula mcr NP_378167 Sulfolobus malonyl-CoA,tokodaii methylmalonyl- CoA I 1.1.1.c 3-hydroxybu- 1,3-butanediol3-hydroxy- adhE2 AAK09379.1 Clostridium butanoyl-CoA tyryl- butyryl-CoAacetobutylicum CoA reductase (alcohol forming) mcr AAS20429.1Chloroflexus malonyl-CoA aurantiacus FAR AAD38039.1 Simmondsia longchain acyl- chinensis CoA

TABLE 38 (Ref: FIG. 3) EC Desired Desired Enzyme Gene GenBank ID KnownStep class substrate product name name (if available) OrganismSubstrates A 4.2.1.a 4-hydroxybutyryl- crotonyl-CoA 4-hydroxy- abfDYP_001396399.1 Clostridium 4-hydroxybutyryl- CoA butyryl-CoA kluyveriDSM 555 CoA dehydratase abfD P55792 Clostridium 4-hydroxybutyryl-aminobutyricum CoA abfD YP_001928843 Porphyromonas 4-hydroxybutyryl-gingivalis ATCC CoA 33277 B 4.2.1.a crotonyl-CoA 3-hydroxybutyryl-crotonase crt NP_349318.1 Clostridium 3-hydroxybutyryl- CoAacetobutylicum CoA crt1 YP_001393856 Clostridium 3-hydroxybutyryl-kluyveri DSM 555 CoA crt YP_001929291.1 Porphyromonas example based ongingivalis ATCC sequence similarity 33277 paaA NP_745427.1 Pseudomonasenoyl-CoA, cis- putida dihydrodiol derivative of phenylacetyl-CoA paaBNP_745426.1 Pseudomonas enoyl-CoA, cis- putida dihydrodiol derivative ofphenylacetyl-CoA phaA ABF82233.1 Pseudomonas enoyl-CoA, cis- fluorescensdihydrodiol derivative of phenylacetyl-CoA phaB ABF82234.1 Pseudomonasenoyl-CoA, cis- fluorescens dihydrodiol derivative of phenylacetyl-CoAmaoC NP_415905.1 Escherichia coli enoyl-CoA, cis- dihydrodiol derivativeof phenylacetyl-CoA paaF NP_415911.1 Escherichia coli enoyl-CoA, cis-dihydrodiol derivative of phenylacetyl-CoA paaG NP_415912.1 Escherichiacoli enoyl-CoA, cis-dihydrodiol derivative of phenylacetyl-CoA C 1.2.1.b3-hydroxybutyryl- 3-hydroxy- 3-hydroxy- Ald AAT66436 Clostridiumbutyryl-CoA CoA butyraldehyde butyryl-CoA beijerinckii reductase(aldehyde forming) sucD NP_904963.1 Porphyromonas succinyl-CoAgingivalis bphG BAA03892.1 Pseudomonas sp acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde,butyraldehyde, isobutyraldehyde and formaldehyde Msed_0709YP_001190808.1 Metallosphaera malonyl-CoA sedula mcr NP_378167Sulfolobus tokodaii malonyl-CoA, methylmalonyl- CoA D 1.1.1.a 3-hydroxy-1,3-butanediol 3-hydroxy- alrA BAB12273.1 Acinetobacter sp. C2-C14aldehydes butyraldehyde butyraldehyde Strain M-1 reductase ADH2NP_014032.1 Saccharymyces propionaldehyde, cerevisiae isobutyraldehyde,butyraldehyde, 2-methylbutyr- aldehyde, 3-methylbutyr- aldehyde,2-phenylacet- aldehyde yqhD NP_417484.1 Escherichia coli acetaldehyde,malondialdehyde, propanaldehyde, butanaldehyde, and acrolein bdh INP_349892.1 Clostridium butyraldehyde acetobutylicum bdh II NP_349891.1Clostridium butyraldehyde acetobutylicum 4hbd YP_726053.1 Ralstoniaeutropha succinate H16 semialdehyde ADHI AAR91477.1 Geobacillus ethanol,1-butanol, thermoglucosidasius 1-pentanol, M10EXG 1-heptanol, 1-hexanol,1-octanol, 2-propanol mmsb P28811.1 Pseudomonas 3-hydroxy- aeruginosabutyraldehyde, malonic semialdehyde, methylmalonate semialdehyde P84067P84067 Thermus methylmalonate thermophilus semialdehyde E 1.1.1.c3-hydroxybutyryl- 1,3-butanediol 3-hydroxy- adhE2 AAK09379.1 Clostridiumbutanoyl-CoA CoA butyryl-CoA acetobutylicum reductase (alcohol forming)mcr AAS20429.1 Chloroflexus malonyl-CoA aurantiacus FAR AAD38039.1Simmondsia long chain acyl- chinensis CoA

Although the invention has been described with reference to thedisclosed embodiments, those skilled in the art will readily appreciatethat the specific examples and studies detailed above are onlyillustrative of the invention. It should be understood that variousmodifications can be made without departing from the spirit of theinvention. Accordingly, the invention is limited only by the followingclaims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A non-naturally occurring microbial organism,comprising a microbial organism having a 1,3-butanediol (1,3-BDO)pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a1,3-BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce1,3-BDO, said 1,3-BDO pathway comprising an enzyme selected from thegroup consisting of a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase, an AKPdehydrogenase, a 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate aminotransferase, a2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate oxidoreductase (deaminating), a2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate decarboxylase, a 3-hydroxybutyraldehydereductase, an AKP aminotransferase, an AKP oxidoreductase (deaminating),a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase, a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase(ketone reducing), a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing), a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase, an AKP decarboxylase, a4-aminobutan-2-one aminotransferase, a 4-aminobutan-2-one oxidoreductase(deaminating), a 4-aminobutan-2-one ammonia-lyase, a butenone hydratase,an AKP ammonia-lyase, an acetylacrylate decarboxylase, anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming), anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, alcohol forming), anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketone reducing), a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoAreductase (aldehyde forming), a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcoholforming), a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, and a crotonase.
 2. Thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein saidmicrobial organism comprises two exogenous nucleic acids, each encodinga 1,3-BDO pathway enzyme.
 3. The non-naturally occurring microbialorganism of claim 1, wherein said microbial organism comprises threeexogenous nucleic acids, each encoding a 1,3-BDO pathway enzyme.
 4. Thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein saidmicrobial organism comprises four exogenous nucleic acids, each encodinga 1,3-BDO pathway enzyme.
 5. The non-naturally occurring microbialorganism of claim 1, wherein said microbial organism comprises fiveexogenous nucleic acids, each encoding a 1,3-BDO pathway enzyme.
 6. Thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said atleast one exogenous nucleic acid is a heterologous nucleic acid.
 7. Thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein saidnon-naturally occurring microbial organism is in a substantiallyanaerobic culture medium.
 8. The non-naturally occurring microbialorganism of any one of claims 1-5, wherein said 1,3-BDO pathwaycomprises a set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes, said set of 1,3-BDO pathwayenzymes selected from the group consisting of: (a) (1) a2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP dehydrogenase; (3) a2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate aminotransferase or oxidoreductase(deaminating); (4) a 2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate decarboxylase; and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (b) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP aminotransferase or oxidoreductase(deaminating); (3) a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase; (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (c) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP aminotransferase or oxidoreductase(deaminating); (3) a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase; (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and (5) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (d) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP)thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneaminotransferase or oxidoreductase (deaminating); (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (e) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneaminotransferase or oxidoreductase (deaminating); (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and (5) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (f) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP)thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneammonia-lyase; (4) a butenone hydratase; and (5) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanonereductase; (g) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKPammonia-lyase; (3) an acetylacrylate decarboxylase; (4) a butenonehydratase; and (5) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (h) (1) anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming); (2) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (3) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (i) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase(CoA dependent, alcohol forming) and (2) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanonereductase; (j) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, aldehydeforming); (2) a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and(3) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (k) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoAreductase (ketone reducing) and (2) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase(alcohol forming); (l) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketonereducing); (2) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and(3) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (m) (1) a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoAdehydratase; (2) a crotonase; and (3) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase(alcohol forming); and (n) (1) a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; (2) acrotonase; (3) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and(4) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase.
 9. The non-naturally occurringmicrobial organism of claim 8, wherein said set of 1,3-BDO pathwayenzymes comprises (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) anAKP dehydrogenase; (3) a 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate aminotransferase oroxidoreductase (deaminating); (4) a 2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoatedecarboxylase; and (5) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase.
 10. Thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 8, wherein said setof 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes comprises (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP aminotransferase or oxidoreductase(deaminating); (3) a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase; (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase.
 11. The non-naturally occurringmicrobial organism of claim 8, wherein said set of 1,3-BDO pathwayenzymes comprises (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) anAKP aminotransferase or oxidoreductase (deaminating); (3) a2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase; (4) a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase(aldehyde reducing); and (5) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase.
 12. Thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 8, wherein said setof 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes comprises (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneaminotransferase; (4) a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing);and (5) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase.
 13. The non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism of claim 8, wherein said set of 1,3-BDOpathway enzymes comprises (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase;(2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-one aminotransferase oroxidoreductase (deaminating); (4) a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase(aldehyde reducing); and (5) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase.
 14. Thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 8, wherein said setof 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes comprises (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneammonia-lyase; (4) a butenone hydratase; and (5) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanonereductase.
 15. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim8, wherein said set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes comprises (1) a2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP ammonia-lyase; (3) aan acetylacrylate decarboxylase; (4) a butenone hydratase; and (5) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase.
 16. The non-naturally occurringmicrobial organism of claim 8, wherein said set of 1,3-BDO pathwayenzymes comprises (1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent,aldehyde forming); (2) a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing);and (3) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase.
 17. The non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism of claim 8, wherein said set of 1,3-BDOpathway enzymes comprises (1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoAdependent, alcohol forming) and (2) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase.18. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 8, whereinsaid set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes comprises (1) an acetoacetyl-CoAreductase (CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming); (2) a 3-oxobutyraldehydereductase (aldehyde reducing); and (3) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase.19. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 8, whereinsaid set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes comprises (1) an acetoacetyl-CoAreductase (ketone reducing) and (2) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase(alcohol forming).
 20. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism ofclaim 8, wherein said set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes comprises (1) anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketone reducing); (2) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoAreductase (aldehyde forming); and (3) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehydereductase.
 21. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim8, wherein said set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes comprises (1) a4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; (2) a crotonase; and (3) a3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming).
 22. The non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism of claim 8, wherein said set of 1,3-BDOpathway enzymes comprises (1) a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; (2) acrotonase; (3) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and(4) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase.
 23. The non-naturally occurringmicrobial organism of claim 1, wherein said 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase is encoded by one or more genes selected from the groupconsisting of ortA (α), ortB (β), Amet_2368 (α), Amet_2369 (β),Teth514_1478 (α), Teth514_1479 (β), TTE1235 (α), and thrC (β).
 24. Thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said AKPdehydrogenase is encoded by one or more genes selected from the groupconsisting of thrA, akthr2, hom6, hom1, hom2, fadB, fadJ, Hbd2, Hbd1,hbd, HSD17B10, phbB, phaB, Msed_1423, Msed_0399, Msed_0389, Msed_1993,adh, adhA, adh-A, mdh, ldhA, ldh, and bdh.
 25. The non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoate aminotransferase is encoded by one or moregenes selected from the group consisting of aspC, AAT2, ASP5, got2,avtA, lysN, AadAT-II, dat, lat, ygjG, spuC, SkyPYD4, SkUGA1, UGA1, Abat,Gta-1, gabT, and puuE.
 26. The non-naturally occurring microbialorganism of claim 1, wherein said 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoateoxidoreductase (deaminating) is encoded by one or more genes selectedfrom the group consisting of gdhA, gdh, gdhA1, rocG, gdh1, gdh2, GDH,GDH2, ldh and nadX.
 27. The non-naturally occurring microbial organismof claim 1, wherein said 2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate decarboxylase isencoded by one or more genes selected from the group consisting of pdc,pdc1, mdlC, dpgB, ilvB-1, kgd, kdcA, lysA, panD, cadA, ldc, ldcC,AF323910.1:1 . . . 1299, odc1, VV2_1235, dmpH, dmpE, xylII, xylIII,Reut_B5691, Reut_B5692, CAD, pad1, pofK(pad), padC, pad, adc, cbei_3835,CLL_A2135, and RBAM_030030,
 28. The non-naturally occurring microbialorganism of claim 1, wherein said 3-hydroxybutyraldehdye reductase isencoded by one or more genes selected from the group consisting of alrA,ADH2, yqhD, bdh I, bdh II, adhA, 4hbd, adhI, P84067, mmsb, dhat, and3hidh.
 29. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1,wherein said AKP aminotransferase is encoded by one or more genesselected from the group consisting of aspC, AAT2, ASP5, got2, avtA,lysN, AadAT-II, dat, lat, ygjG, spuC, SkyPYD4, SkUGA1, UGA1, Abat,Gta-1, gabT, and puuE.
 30. The non-naturally occurring microbialorganism of claim 1, wherein said AKP oxidoreductase (deaminating) isencoded by one or more genes selected from the group consisting of gdhA,gdh, gdhA1, rocG, gdh1, gdh2, GDH, GDH2, ldh and nadX.
 31. Thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase is encoded by one or more genesselected from the group consisting of pdc, pdc1, mdlC, dpgB, ilvB-1,kgd, kdcA, lysA, panD, cadA, ldc, ldcC, AF323910.1:1 . . . 1299, odc1,VV2_1235, dmpH, dmpE, xylII, xylIII, Reut_B5691, Reut_B5692, CAD, pad1,pofK(pad), padC, pad, adc, cbei_3835, CLL_A2135, and RBAM_030030. 32.The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing) is encoded by one or moregenes selected from the group consisting of thrA, akthr2, hom6, hom1,hom2, fadB, fadJ, Hbd2, Hbd1, hbd, HSD17B10, phbB, phaB, Msed_1423,Msed_0399, Msed_0389, Msed_1993, adh, adhA, adh-A, mdh, ldhA, ldh, andbdh.
 33. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1,wherein said 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing) is encodedby one or more genes selected from the group consisting of alrA, ADH2,yqhD, bdh I, bdh II, adhA, 4hbd, adhI, P84067, mmsb, dhat, and 3hidh.34. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, whereinsaid 4-hydroxy,2-butanone reductase is encoded by one or more genesselected from the group consisting of thrA, akthr2, hom6, hom1, hom2,fadB, fadJ, Hbd2, Hbd1, hbd, HSD17B10, phbB, phaB, Msed_1423, Msed_0399,Msed_0389, Msed_1993, adh, adhA, adh-A, mdh, ldhA, ldh, and bdh.
 35. Thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said AKPdecarboxylase is encoded by one or more genes selected from the groupconsisting of pdc, pdc1, mdlC, dpgB, ilvB-1, kgd, kdcA, lysA, panD,cadA, ldc, ldcC, AF323910.1:1 . . . 1299, odc1, VV2_1235, dmpH, dmpE,xylII, xylIII, Reut_B5691, Reut_B5692, CAD, pad1, pofK(pad), padC, andpad.
 36. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1,wherein said 4-aminobutan-2-one aminotransferase is encoded by one ormore genes selected from the group consisting of aspC, AAT2, ASP5, got2,avtA, lysN, AadAT-II, dat, lat, ygjG, spuC, SkyPYD4, SkUGA1, UGA1, Abat,Gta-1, gabT, and puuE.
 37. The non-naturally occurring microbialorganism of claim 1, wherein said 4-aminobutan-2-one oxidoreductase(deaminating) is encoded by one or more genes selected from the groupconsisting of gdhA, gdh, gdhA1, rocG, gdh1, gdh2, GDH, GDH2, ldh, nadX,kdd and lysDH.
 38. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism ofclaim 1, wherein said 4-aminobutan-2-one ammonia-lyase is encoded by oneor more genes selected from the group consisting of aspA, and ansB. 39.The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein saidbutenone hydratase is encoded by one or more genes selected from thegroup consisting of fumA, fumB, fumC, fumH, fum1, MmcB, MmcC, hmd,BACCAP_02294, ANACOL_02527, NtherDRAFT_2368, dmdA, dmdB, crt, crt1, echpaaA, paaB, phaA, phaB, maoC, paaF, paaG, abfD, and Msed_1220.
 40. Thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said AKPammonia-lyase is encoded by one or more genes selected from the groupconsisting of aspA, and ansB.
 41. The non-naturally occurring microbialorganism of claim 1, wherein said acetylacrylate decarboxylase isencoded by one or more genes selected from the group consisting of pdc,pdc1, mdlC, dpgB, ilvB-1, kgd, kdcA, lysA, panD, cadA, ldc, ldcC,AF323910.1:1 . . . 1299, odc1, VV2_1235, dmpH, dmpE, xylII, xylIII,Reut_B5691, Reut_B5692, CAD, pad1, pofK(pad), padC, pad, adc, cbei_3835,CLL_A2135, and RBAM_030030.
 42. The non-naturally occurring microbialorganism of claim 1, wherein said acetoacetyl-CoA reductase(CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming) is encoded by one or more genesselected from the group consisting of acr1, sucD, bphG, bld, adhE,Msed_0709, mcr, asd-2, Saci_2370, Ald, and eutE.
 43. The non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said acetoacetyl-CoAreductase (CoA-dependent, alcohol forming) is encoded by one or moregenes selected from the group consisting of adhE, adhE2, mcr, Rcas_2929,NAP1_02720, MGP2080_00535, and FAR.
 44. The non-naturally occurringmicrobial organism of claim 1, wherein said acetoacetyl-CoA reductase(ketone reducing) is encoded by one or more genes selected from thegroup consisting of thrA, akthr2, hom6, hom1, hom2, fadB, fadJ, Hbd2,Hbd1, hbd, HSD17B10, phbB, phaB, Msed_1423, Msed_0399, Msed_0389,Msed_1993, adh, adhA, adh-A, mdh, ldhA, ldh, and bdh.
 45. Thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming) is encoded by one ormore genes selected from the group consisting of acr1, sucD, bphG, bld,adhE, Msed_0709, mcr, asd-2, Saci_2370, Ald, and eutE.
 46. Thenon-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) is encoded by one ormore genes selected from the group consisting of adhE, adhE2, mcr,Rcas_2929, NAP1_02720, MGP2080_00535, and FAR.
 47. The non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase is encoded by one or more genesselected from the group consisting of fumA, fumB, fumC, fumH, fum1,MmcB, MmcC, hmd, BACCAP_02294, ANACOL_02527, NtherDRAFT_2368, dmdA,dmdB, crt, crt1, ech paaA, paaB, phaA, phaB, maoC, paaF, paaG, abfD,Msed_1220, fadA, fadB, fadI, fadJ, and fadR.
 48. The non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said crotonase isencoded by one or more genes selected from the group consisting of fumA,fumB, fumC, fumH, fum1, MmcB, MmcC, hmd, BACCAP_02294, ANACOL_02527,NtherDRAFT_2368, dmdA, dmdB, crt, crt1, ech paaA, paaB, phaA, phaB,maoC, paaF, paaG, abfD, Msed_1220, fadA, fadB, fadI, fadJ, and fadR. 49.A method for producing 1,3-BDO, comprising culturing a non-naturallyoccurring microbial organism according to claim 1, under conditions andfor a sufficient period of time to produce 1,3-BDO.
 50. The method ofclaim 49, wherein said microbial organism comprises two exogenousnucleic acids, each encoding a 1,3-BDO pathway enzyme.
 51. The method ofclaim 49, wherein said microbial organism comprises three exogenousnucleic acids, each encoding a 1,3-BDO pathway enzyme.
 52. The method ofclaim 49, wherein said microbial organism comprises four exogenousnucleic acids, each encoding a 1,3-BDO pathway enzyme.
 53. The method ofclaim 49, wherein said microbial organism comprises five exogenousnucleic acids, each encoding a 1,3-BDO pathway enzyme.
 54. The method ofany one of claims 49-53, wherein said 1,3-BDO pathway comprises a set of1,3-BDO pathway enzymes, said set of 1,3-BDO pathway enzymes selectedfrom the group consisting of: (a) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP)thiolase; (2) an AKP dehydrogenase; (3) a 2-amino-4-hydroxypentanoateaminotransferase or oxidoreductase (deaminating); (4) a2-oxo-4-hydroxypentanoate decarboxylase; and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (b) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP aminotransferase or oxidoreductase(deaminating); (3) a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase; (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (c) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP aminotransferase or oxidoreductase(deaminating); (3) a 2,4-dioxopentanoate decarboxylase; (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and (5) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (d) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP)thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneaminotransferase or oxidoreductase (deaminating); (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (5) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (e) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate(AKP) thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneaminotransferase or oxidoreductase (deaminating); (4) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and (5) a4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (f) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP)thiolase; (2) an AKP decarboxylase; (3) a 4-aminobutan-2-oneammonia-lyase; (4) a butanone hydratase; and (5) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanonereductase; and (g) (1) a 2-amino-4-ketopentanoate (AKP) thiolase; (2) anAKP ammonia-lyase; (3) an acetylacrylate decarboxylase; (4) a butanonehydratase; and (5) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (h) (1) anacetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, aldehyde forming); (2) a3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (ketone reducing); and (3) a3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (i) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase(CoA dependent, alcohol forming) and (2) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanonereductase; (j) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (CoA-dependent, aldehydeforming); (2) a 3-oxobutyraldehyde reductase (aldehyde reducing); and(3) a 4-hydroxy-2-butanone reductase; (k) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoAreductase (ketone reducing) and (2) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase(alcohol forming); (l) (1) an acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketonereducing); (2) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and(3) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; (m) (1) a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoAdehydratase; (2) a crotonase; and (3) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase(alcohol forming); and (n) (1) a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; (2) acrotonase; (3) a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and(4) a 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase.
 55. The method of claim 49,wherein said non-naturally occurring microbial organism is in asubstantially anaerobic culture medium.
 56. The method of claim 49,wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is a heterologousnucleic acid.